The following document is organized into four sections
to provide additional information on the theory behind the Atlas
of Canada geographical model of QOL,
the methodology, and the rationale for the selection of indicators.
Theoretical Background
Indicators
Methodology and Other Important
Information
Theoretical Background
The theoretical framework behind the Atlas of Canada quality of
life model is found in the following paper: Quality
of Life in Saskatoon 1991 and 1996: A Geographical Perspective. This paper
is available upon request in .pdf format. If you are interested
in reading this paper, please request the file qol_paper.pdf from
Contact
Us.
The Atlas of Canada QOL
Model
The Atlas of Canada quality of life model (Figure 1) was developed
based on other geographic quality of life models. Indicators were
collected to measure individual domains or aspects of life. These
domains are further categorized into three environments: physical
environment, social environment and economic environment. The physical
environment represents the environment in which people live, whereas
the social and economic environments represent those in which people
engage in, and benefit from, social and economic activity, respectively.
[D] Click for larger version, 128 KB Figure 1. The Atlas of Canada Quality of Life Model
Indicators
To measure each domain, several indicators have been selected to
best represent that aspect of quality of life. Each indicator has
been assigned a direction, either inverse or direct. An inverse
relationship to quality of life implies that a high value of this
indicator has a negative influence on quality of life. A direct
relationship implies that a high value of this indicator has a positive
influence on quality of life.
The Atlas of Canada Quality of Life
Indicators
The Atlas of Canada quality of life indicators described in this
section have been selected in consultation with various experts
in social indicators research under the direction of an advisory
committee. Refer to Table 1 for the list of participants consulted
in the making of this series of maps.
Table 1: Organizations and Individuals Consulted
Organizations and Individuals Consulted
Heather Clemenson,
Manager, Rural Research and Analysis |
Rural Secretariat,
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada |
Sally Thornton, Director,
Accountability Implementation |
Health Canada |
George Hack, Senior
Analyst |
Treasury Board
of Canada Secretariat |
Mike Ornstein, Director |
Institute for
Social Research, York University |
John Engeland, Senior
Researcher, Housing Finance and Affordability |
Canada Mortgage
and Housing Corporation |
Joel DeBlock, Consultant |
Building Understanding
and Success |
Mark Anielski, Green
Economics Program Director |
Pembina Institute
for Appropriate Development |
Andrew Jackson, Research
Director |
Canadian Council
on Social Development |
Ted Hildebrandt, Senior
Planner |
Halton Social
Planning Council |
Mark Winfield, Special
Advisor, Organizational Strategies |
Environmental
Governance, Pembina Institute for Appropriate Development |
Dr. Dave Bennett,
Associate Professor |
Department of
Geography, Carleton University |
Sandra Zagon,
Quality of Life Project Manager |
Canadian Policy
and Research Network |
Stephanie Jackson,
Senior Policy Advisor |
Health Canada |
Marni Capp, Senior
Policy Advisor |
Federation of
Canadian Municipalities |
Andrew Sharpe, Executive
Director |
Centre for the
Study of Living Standards |
Henry Puderer, Chief,
Geographic Areas Section |
Statistics Canada |
Dr. Jim Simmons |
Centre for Commercial
Activity, Ryerson University |
|
The quality of life indicators have been classified according to
the environment that they represent, and further divided into the
domains they measure. Each indicator has been defined and a rationale
given for its direction (specifically, whether it has a direct or
inverse relation to quality of life).
Physical Environment
The physical environment represents the external conditions under
which people live, including aspects of service provision and external
environmental conditions relating to housing, environmental quality
and personal security.
Housing
Housing is one of the basic needs for well-being. Poor quality
of housing may have adverse effects on health and well-being.
Indicators
- Percentage of population living in housing requiring major
repairs (inverse)
- Average number of persons per room (inverse)
- Percentage of household incomes with owner’s major payments
(or gross rent) for shelter being greater than or equal to 30
per cent of household income (inverse)
Rationale
Housing is one of the basic needs of all individuals, and the
standard of housing impacts on physical health and well-being.
Housing requiring major repairs inversely affects housing quality,
while a high number of people per room inversely affects liveability.
The third indicator measures affordability: a higher percentage
of household income spent on rent or a mortgage impacts inversely
on affordability.
Data source: Statistics Canada. 1996 Census of Population. Ottawa:
Statistics Canada.
Accessibility to Services
Access to services affects well-being, social participation, education,
health and employment.
Indicators
- Distance from centre of census subdivision to nearest hospital
(inverse)
Rationale
Accessibility is important to quality of life, as it creates
the potential to take advantage of opportunities for upward social
mobility, and to access health services, goods and services within
the community.
Data source: Canadian Institute of Health Information. 1996. Special
Tabulation. Ottawa: Canadian Institute of Health Information.
Environmental Quality
The quality of the physical environment has effects on well-being,
social participation and health.
Indicators
- Density of dwellings requiring major repairs per square kilometres
(inverse)
- Air quality: measured as total particulate matter emissions
(inverse)
Rationale
Populations with high spatial concentrations (or densities (for
example, the density of dwellings requiring major repairs) inversely
influence quality of life, in terms of social behaviour and health,
since they 1) inversely impact on the landscape, interfering with
the ability to enjoy and appreciate the environment; and 2) result
in concentrations of poor housing conditions, thus inversely impacting
upon the environment and health. High levels of air pollution
may severely impact health.
Data sources: Statistics Canada. 1996 Census of Population.
Ottawa: Statistics Canada. Environment Canada. 1995. Criteria
Air Contaminant Emissions. Ottawa: Environment Canada, Pollution
Data Branch.
Personal Security
The quality of the physical environment has effects on well-being,
social participation and health.
Indicators
- Incidence of personal crime (percentage; inverse)
- Incidence of property crime (percentage; inverse)
Rationale
High crime rates inversely influence quality of life, since they
have severe effects on social order and on well-being. They also
may indicate social alienation.
Data source: Statistics Canada. 1996. Canadian Centre for Justice
Statistics. Ottawa: Statistics Canada.
Social Environment
The social environment represents the external conditions under
which people engage in social activity within their community.
Social Opportunity and Mobility
The degree of social opportunity affects participation in democratic
processes, which invokes a sense of contribution and belonging
Indicators
- Ratio of female median income to male median income (direct)
- Male participation rate in workforce (direct)
- Female participation rate in workforce (direct)
Rationale
Social opportunity directly influences quality of life, as it
creates an environment where opportunities are possible. This
is important for social change (or upward mobility) and for individual
well-being and self-esteem. Use of participation rates in the
work force is based on the assumption that the greater the rates
of labour force participation, the greater the social opportunity.
Median income comparisons show social inequality in terms of
the opportunity of women to participate in society, based on income
earned for their participation in the workforce. Higher values
indicate less social inequality between males and females.
Data source: Statistics Canada. 1996 Census of Population. Ottawa:
Statistics Canada.
Leisure and Recreation
Leisure and recreational activities affect overall well-being and
can have a direct bearing on health.
Indicators
- Percentage of population with access to leisure-related commercial
activities (direct)*
- Percentage of population with access to libraries (direct)**
Rationale
Opportunity for and access to leisure and recreational activities
directly influences quality of life, since they are necessary
for individual health and well-being.
Data sources: Micromedia. 2003. Electronic Libraries in Canada
Mailing List, 1996. Toronto: Micromedia. Statistics Canada.
1996 Business Registry. Special Tabulation. Ottawa: Statistics
Canada.
* Includes all restaurants, bars, hotels, motels and other recreation
facilities (for example, campgrounds, sport complexes) from Statistics
Canada’s 1996 Business Registry.
** Includes all public libraries and other libraries (including
branches, university libraries, archives and government libraries)
across Canada; does not, however, include libraries located in public
schools.
Participation in the Democratic Process
Voter participation in democratic processes invokes a sense of
contribution and belonging.
Indicators
- Percentage of the population that participated in the 1997
federal elections (direct)
Rationale
Participation in democratic processes directly impacts on quality
of life, since it indicates strong involvement in the democratic
process (or sense of social belonging), as opposed to a low participation
rate, which may be a sign of alienation from the democratic process.
Data source: Statistics Canada. 1996 Census of Population.
Ottawa: Statistics Canada.
Education
Education is important for social mobility, participation and employment
opportunity.
Indicators
- Ratio of percentage of population with trade/college or university
education to percentage of population less than Grade 9 education
(direct)
Rationale
High educational attainment level directly impacts quality of
life, since it is closely linked to the ability to take advantage
of employment opportunities and for social mobility.
Data source: Statistics Canada. 1996 Census of Population.
Ottawa: Statistics Canada.
Social Stability
Stability is important for overall well-being and can be affected
by adverse changes in the social environment.
Indicators
- Ratio of percentage of population living in owned housing
to percentage of population living in rental housing (direct)
- Percentage of population living at the same address they lived
at five years earlier (‘non-movers’; direct)
- Percentage of population who were living at a different address
than the one they lived at five years earlier (‘movers’;
inverse)
Rationale
Lack of social stability inversely influences quality of life,
because it suggests a possible breakdown of the social order.
Impacts on health and well-being may vary, but can potentially
have detrimental long-lasting repercussions for society and the
individual. Lower mobility (or change in residence) among the
population through time implies greater social cohesion.
Data source: Statistics Canada. 1996 Census of Population. Ottawa:
Statistics Canada.
Access to Health Services
Health resources make the production of health services possible.
Indicators
- Number of physician specialists per thousand people (direct)
- Number of family physicians per thousand people (direct)
Rationale
Access to health resources directly influences quality of life,
as it directly impacts on quality of health care and the prolongation
of life.
Data source: Canadian Institute of Health Information. Physician
Data 1996. Ottawa: Canadian Institute of Health Information.
Health Status
Health status refers to the state of health of a person, group
or population.
Indicators
- Incidence of low birth weight per thousand people (inverse)
- Incidence of breast cancer per thousand people (inverse)
Rationale
The proportion of low-weight births is recognized as an important
indicator of the health and well-being of a population, since
there is a close relationship between low birth weight and infant
mortality, and therefore an inverse influence on quality of life.
High breast cancer rates relate to the distribution of risk conditions,
which may suggest possible environmental factors that inversely
influence quality of life.
Data source: Statistics Canada. 1996. Custom Tabulation. Ottawa:
Statistics Canada.
Economic Environment
The economic environment represents the environment in which people
work, including aspects of economic status and finances.
Household Finances
Household finances affect consumption and thereby impact on access
to technology, travel and leisure.
Indicators
- Average owner’s major payments (inverse)
- Percentage of income from government transfer payments (inverse)
- Ratio of households in lowest income category to those in
highest income category (inverse)
- Percentage incidence of low income families (inverse)
Rationale
The level of disposable income directly influences quality of
life, as it may be a necessary condition in order to access such
services as health, education and the basic necessities of life.
Those households that spend a disproportionate amount on accommodation
or receive a disproportionate amount of income through government
transfer payments experience inverse impacts on quality of life,
since they are less able to acquire a wide range of goods and
services.
A high proportion of households with low incomes is an inverse
influence on the purchasing of more basic needs, and may indicate
a nonequitable distribution of access to goods and services among
households.
Data source: Statistics Canada. 1996 Census of Population. Ottawa:
Statistics Canada.
Employment/Paid Work
Income from employment allows for the purchase of goods and services.
Employment status may also affect esteem and well-being.
Indicators
- Unemployment rate (inverse)
- Ratio of individuals working part year, part time to individuals
working full year, full time (inverse)
- Average employment income (direct)
Rationale
A high unemployment rate inversely impacts quality of life, since
it may influence personal self-esteem, dignity and security; as
well, have an impact on the purchasing of more basic needs. The
greater the proportion of people working part year, part time
relative to those working full-year, full time inversely influences
quality of life, since it may indicate the lack of full-time employment
opportunities. High average employment income directly influences
quality of life, since it can indicate the ability of individuals
to purchase a wider range of goods and services.
Data source: Statistics Canada. 1996 Census of Population. Ottawa:
Statistics Canada.
Methodology and Other Important Information
Geographical Area
Statistics Canada census subdivisions are the geographic area
used to map communities at the intra-urban scale, or between communities
across Canada. Data not derived from the 1996 Statistics Canada
census subdivision data have been geocoded (or referenced to the
appropriate census subdivisions). Only census subdivisions with
data for all the indicators have been mapped, and this number
varies from map to map. Refer to the References and Links section
for more information on the data sources for the individual indicators.
Methodology
The standard score additive model has been used to map quality
of life. This model uses z-scores to transform the data, which makes
it possible to add and subtract the values of the indicators. For
each census subdivision, the z-scores of the indicators used to
assess quality of life were added (or subtracted) to calculate a
total score for the economic, social and physical environments.
For example, Table 2 shows a partial calculation of two indicators
for the social environment for census subdivision A.
Table 2. Partial Calculation of Two Indicators for the Social
Environment
Partial Calculation of Two Indicators for the Social Environment
Domain |
Participation |
Health status |
Selected indicator |
Voter participation |
Low birth weight |
Indicator direction |
direct (+) |
inverse (–) |
Census subdivision
A |
34% |
10% |
Z-score |
–2.0 |
1.0 |
|
- The (partial) Social Environment total score for Census Subdivision(A)
= -2.0 - 1.0 = -3.0
This methodology has several disadvantages, primarily because it
assumes that quality of life can be determined by simple arithmetic.
At the very least, however, the method is a useful starting point
for a geographic description of quality of life at the intra-urban
(census subdivision) level across Canada. Although there are alternative
methods for mapping quality of life, this methodology is less complex
and easier to understand than a more complex statistical procedure.
Classification
of Census Subdivisions (CSDs)
The census subdivisions were classified using a geographic classification
called census metropolitan areas (CMAs)
and census agglomerations (CAs)
influenced zones, or MIZ.
The MIZ
classification was developed by Statistics Canada as a way of classifying
census subdivisions on the basis of whether they are CMAs
or CAs, and the
degree to which the remaining census subdivisions are influenced
by the CMA/CA.
The classes are: strong MIZ,
moderate MIZ,
weak MIZ
and no MIZ.
For example, a census subdivision strongly influenced by a CMA/CA
would be classified as a strong MIZ,
whereas a census subdivision that was not greatly influenced would
be classed as a weak MIZ.
A rural area would be an example of a no MIZ
census subdivision.
The five MIZ
categories are further divided into north, north transition, south
and south transition, based on their geographic location. This geographic
classification was also used to further classify the census subdivisions.
The CMA/CA
MIZ class
was further broken down into five population classes: 0 to 12 000,
12 001 to 50 000, 50 001 to 150 000, 150 001 to 330 000, and greater
than 330 000 (Table 3).
Table 3.0 Number of CSDs
by CMA/CA,
MIZ Categories
and North/South Location, 1996 Census
Number of CSDs
by CMA/CA,
MIZ
Categories and North/South Location, 1996 Census
Newfoundland |
381 |
32 |
2 |
0 |
17 |
13 |
Prince Edward Island |
113 |
24 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
24 |
Nova Scotia |
110 |
28 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
28 |
New Brunswick |
283 |
66 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
66 |
Quebec |
1599 |
312 |
0 |
0 |
50 |
262 |
Ontario |
947 |
219 |
0 |
0 |
10 |
209 |
Manitoba |
298 |
19 |
1 |
0 |
5 |
13 |
Saskatchewan |
970 |
61 |
0 |
0 |
28 |
33 |
Alberta |
467 |
94 |
13 |
12 |
54 |
15 |
British Columbia |
713 |
188 |
0 |
2 |
36 |
150 |
Yukon Territory |
35 |
5 |
0 |
5 |
0 |
0 |
Northwest Territories |
68 |
1 |
1 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Canada |
5984 |
1049 |
17 |
19 |
200 |
813 |
|
Source: Rambeay, Sheila, and Kathleen Todd.
2000. Census Metropolitan Area and Census Agglomeration Influenced
Zone ( MIZ)
with Census Data. Ottawa: Geography Division, Statistics Canada.
Table 3.1 Number of CSDs
by CMA/CA,
MIZ Categories
and North/South Location, 1996 Census
Number of CSDs
by CMA/CA,
MIZ
Categories and North/South Location, 1996 Census
Newfoundland |
381 |
19 |
0 |
0 |
9 |
10 |
Prince Edward Island |
113 |
29 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
29 |
Nova Scotia |
110 |
3 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
3 |
New Brunswick |
283 |
31 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
31 |
Quebec |
1599 |
272 |
0 |
0 |
36 |
236 |
Ontario |
947 |
196 |
0 |
0 |
4 |
192 |
Manitoba |
298 |
17 |
0 |
0 |
9 |
8 |
Saskatchewan |
970 |
54 |
0 |
0 |
24 |
30 |
Alberta |
467 |
34 |
0 |
0 |
20 |
14 |
British Columbia |
713 |
14 |
0 |
4 |
3 |
7 |
Yukon Territory |
35 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Northwest Territories |
68 |
2 |
2 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Canada |
5984 |
671 |
2 |
4 |
105 |
560 |
|
Source: Rambeay, Sheila, and Kathleen Todd.
2000. Census Metropolitan Area and Census Agglomeration Influenced
Zone ( MIZ)
with Census Data. Ottawa: Geography Division, Statistics Canada.
Table 3.2 Number of CSDs
by CMA/CA,
MIZ Categories
and North/South Location, 1996 Census
Number of CSDs
by CMA/CA,
MIZ
Categories and North/South Location, 1996 Census
Newfoundland |
381 |
153 |
2 |
3 |
57 |
91 |
Prince Edward Island |
113 |
44 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
44 |
Nova Scotia |
110 |
20 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
20 |
New Brunswick |
283 |
93 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
93 |
Quebec |
1599 |
588 |
0 |
6 |
83 |
499 |
Ontario |
947 |
270 |
1 |
1 |
14 |
254 |
Manitoba |
298 |
69 |
0 |
2 |
24 |
43 |
Saskatchewan |
970 |
198 |
1 |
1 |
86 |
110 |
Alberta |
467 |
79 |
0 |
6 |
28 |
45 |
British Columbia |
713 |
58 |
0 |
3 |
10 |
45 |
Yukon Territory |
35 |
1 |
0 |
1 |
0 |
0 |
Northwest Territories |
68 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Canada |
5984 |
1573 |
4 |
23 |
302 |
1244 |
|
Source: Rambeay, Sheila, and Kathleen Todd.
2000. Census Metropolitan Area and Census Agglomeration Influenced
Zone ( MIZ)
with Census Data. Ottawa: Geography Division, Statistics Canada.
Table 3.3 Number of CSDs
by CMA/CA,
MIZ Categories
and North/South Location, 1996 Census
Number of CSDs
by CMA/CA,
MIZ
Categories and North/South Location, 1996 Census
Newfoundland |
381 |
73 |
5 |
8 |
22 |
38 |
Prince Edward Island |
113 |
12 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
12 |
Nova Scotia |
110 |
42 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
42 |
New Brunswick |
283 |
66 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
66 |
Quebec |
1599 |
190 |
14 |
10 |
44 |
122 |
Ontario |
947 |
119 |
3 |
7 |
29 |
80 |
Manitoba |
298 |
105 |
8 |
12 |
45 |
40 |
Saskatchewan |
970 |
226 |
3 |
14 |
97 |
112 |
Alberta |
467 |
128 |
0 |
24 |
44 |
60 |
British Columbia |
713 |
96 |
3 |
12 |
25 |
56 |
Yukon Territory |
35 |
12 |
5 |
7 |
0 |
0 |
Northwest Territories |
68 |
27 |
27 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Canada |
5984 |
1096 |
68 |
94 |
306 |
628 |
|
Source: Rambeay, Sheila, and Kathleen Todd.
2000. Census Metropolitan Area and Census Agglomeration Influenced
Zone ( MIZ)
with Census Data. Ottawa: Geography Division, Statistics Canada.
Table 3.4 Number of CSDs
by CMA/CA,
MIZ Categories
and North/South Location, 1996 Census
Number of CSDs
by CMA/CA,
MIZ
Categories and North/South Location, 1996 Census
Newfoundland |
381 |
104 |
5 |
17 |
37 |
45 |
Prince Edward Island |
113 |
4 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
4 |
Nova Scotia |
110 |
17 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
17 |
New Brunswick |
283 |
27 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
27 |
Quebec |
1599 |
237 |
31 |
17 |
68 |
121 |
Ontario |
947 |
143 |
21 |
14 |
44 |
64 |
Manitoba |
298 |
88 |
18 |
16 |
29 |
25 |
Saskatchewan |
970 |
431 |
7 |
41 |
131 |
252 |
Alberta |
467 |
132 |
0 |
28 |
66 |
38 |
British Columbia |
713 |
357 |
3 |
31 |
72 |
251 |
Yukon Territory |
35 |
17 |
6 |
11 |
0 |
0 |
Northwest Territories |
68 |
38 |
38 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Canada |
5984 |
1595 |
129 |
175 |
447 |
844 |
|
Source: Rambeay, Sheila, and Kathleen Todd.
2000. Census Metropolitan Area and Census Agglomeration Influenced
Zone ( MIZ)
with Census Data. Ottawa: Geography Division, Statistics Canada. |