| Français | |
Contact us | |
Help | |
Search | |
Canada Site |
|
||||||||
| Justice Home | |
Site Map | |
Programs and Initiatives | |
Proactive Disclosure | |
Laws |
|
|
|
||||||
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Family Violence Initiative Abuse of Older Adults: A fact sheet from the Department of Justice Canada
WHAT IS ABUSE OF OLDER ADULTS?Although individuals may be abused at virtually any life stage – childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, middle age or old age – the nature and consequences of abuse may differ depending on an individual’s situation. Older adults’1 experiences of abuse, for example, may be related to their living arrangement (they may be living alone, with family members or others, or in an institution). Their experiences may also be linked to their level of reliance on others, including family members or other care providers, for assistance and support in daily living. There is fairly widespread agreement that abuse of older adults includes three main categories:
In this fact sheet, "abuse of older adults" refers to violence, mistreatment or neglect that older adults living in either private residences or institutions may experience at the hands of their spouses, children, other family members, caregivers, service providers or other individuals in situations of power or trust. This fact sheet does not address self-neglect by older adults.3 Abuse of older adults is sometimes described as a misuse of power and a violation of trust. Abusers may use a number of different tactics to exert power and control over their victims. Abuse may happen once or it may occur in a repeated and escalating pattern over months or years. The abuse may take many different forms, which may change over time. Some violent or abusive acts violate civic or basic human rights. Some are criminal acts (see Preventing and Responding to Abuse of Older Adults below). This fact sheet provides information about abuse of older adults from a justice perspective. Types of abuse4Certain types of abuse may be more likely to occur in particular circumstances. For example, for older adults living in private homes abuse may relate to their level of financial or emotional dependence on family members or others, or vice-versa. For older adults residing in long-term care facilities, abuse may relate to the often-intimate processes in which staff and residents are involved including feeding, bathing, dressing, moving and providing medication and other treatments. The following examples include acts of abuse that may occur in different living arrangements. Psychological abuse includes attempts to dehumanize or intimidate older adults. Any verbal or non-verbal act that reduces their sense of self-worth or dignity and threatens their psychological and emotional integrity is abuse. This type of abuse may include, for example:
Financial abuse encompasses financial manipulation or exploitation including theft, fraud, forgery, or extortion. It includes using older adults’ money or property in a dishonest manner, or failing to use older adults’ assets for their welfare. Anytime someone acts without consent in a way that financially or personally benefits one person at the expense of another it is abuse. This type of abuse against an older adult may include, for example:
It also includes unduly pressuring older adults to:
Financial or material abuse against older adults may also include:
Physical abuse includes any act of violence – whether or not it results in physical injury. Intentionally inflicting pain or injury that results in either bodily harm or mental distress is abuse. Physical abuse may include, for example:
Physical abuse against older adults may also include:
Older adults who become frail and require medical or other health-related services may experience abuse. In this context, abuse of older adults may involve failing to facilitate their access to medical or health services (such as access to aids or assistive devices or treatment for substance abuse). It may also include either failing to provide medical attention due to age, or conducting a procedure or providing treatment without the informed consent of the patient or their recognized substitute. Other examples of this type of abuse may include:
Neglect includes failing to (intentionally or unintentionally) care for or meet the needs of older adults who are dependent and cannot meet their own needs. This type of abuse may include, for example, failing to provide:
It may also include:
Sexual abuse includes behaving in a sexual way toward older adults without their full knowledge and consent. It includes all forms of sexual assault, sexual harassment or sexual exploitation.5 Spiritual abuse or neglect may include:
HOW WIDESPREAD IS ABUSE OF OLDER ADULTS IN CANADA?6Approximately 7% of the sample of more than 4,000 adults 65 years of age and older who responded to the 1999 General Social Survey on Victimization (GSS) reported that they had experienced some form of emotional or financial abuse by an adult child, spouse or caregiver in the five years prior to the survey, with the vast majority committed by spouses. Emotional abuse was more frequently reported (7%) than financial abuse (1%). The two most common forms of emotional abuse reported were being put down or called names, or having contact with family and friends limited. Only a small proportion of older adults (1%) reported experiencing physical or sexual abuse.7 Almost 2% of older Canadians indicated that they had experienced more than one type of abuse.8 According to the Incidence-based Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR2) Survey, in 2000 the largest category of police-reported violent crime committed against older adults by family members was assault - usually common assault, such as pushing, slapping, punching and threats to apply force. The top three most frequent offences experienced by older adults from family members were common assault (54%), followed by uttering threats (21%) and assault with a weapon or causing bodily harm (13%).9 In cases of family violence reported to the police forces that participate in the UCR2 Survey, adult children and spouses accounted for almost three-quarters (71%) of those responsible for victimizations of older adults.10 According to the UCR2 Survey data, eight in 10 of those accused of violently victimizing an older family member in 2000 were men.11In 2000, family members killed three out of every one million seniors (a total of 10 older adults), which is about one-quarter (26%) of all older adult homicides in Canada.12 Between 1974 and 2000, older adult homicides committed by family members were most likely to be committed by spouses (39%), adult children (37%) or extended family members (24%).13
Implications of an aging populationThe proportion of older adults in the population was 13% in 2001, and is expected to reach 15% by the year 2011. The fastest growing group - individuals 80 years of age and older - is expected to increase 43% from 2001 to 2011, when it could surpass an estimated 1.3 million.14 Compared to two decades earlier, census data for 2001 indicates that more older adults are living with a spouse, with adult children, or living alone, and fewer are living in health care institutions.15 The aging of the population, combined with the shift away from institutional care for the aged, and changes in health and social services, suggest that abuse of older adults could increase in future, as the demands on family members to care for older relatives increases.16 In addition, as more older adults remain living in the community longer, the proportion of very elderly residents living in long-term care facilities may increase. In 2001, older adults 85 years of age and older were the group most likely to live in health care institutions,17 and they are the group of older adults most likely to experience some form of cognitive impairment. WHAT FACTORS PLAY A ROLE IN ABUSE OF OLDER ADULTS?Abuse of older adults is a complex issue, with no single explanation. Many different factors have been explored in the literature - and the 1999 GSS has also provided some specific risk factor information (see side bar) & but more knowledge is needed. This section describes some of the areas that researchers have focused on. Age and health statusOlder adults who are either physically frail or disabled (or experiencing deteriorating physical abilities), and those who are either cognitively impaired or disabled (or experiencing deteriorating mental capacity) may be more vulnerable to abuse. Residents of long term care facilities, for example, may be more vulnerable to abuse because they are already in need of the protective environment of an institution.18 GenderThe national data has indicated that following links exist between gender and abuse of older adults:
Psychological and behavioural patterns of abusers: caregiver stress, abuse as learned behaviour and psychopathology of abusersThe notion that abuse stems from caregiver stress (from coping with older adults’ physical or mental impairment) has received a great deal of attention in the literature. The evidence, however, is limited, and some researchers have noted that many caregivers who experience stress do not resort to abusive behaviour.21 Some researchers have suggested that individuals who abuse older adults may have learned this behaviour through either witnessing or suffering abuse themselves. For example, adult children who abuse their parents may have learned this behaviour from their parents. However, not all caregivers who were abused as children in turn abuse older adults.22 Another, somewhat controversial, area of risk factor research has focused on the role of abuser psychopathology including substance abuse and mental health disorders.23 DependencySome researchers have suggested that there is an association between the abuse and presence of physical, emotional and financial dependencies between abusers and their older adult victims. For example, older adults who become more powerless, vulnerable and dependent on their caregivers may be at higher risk for abuse. Other research has shown the reverse – in some cases, abusers may, in fact, be dependent on the older adults they victimize – and the abuse may be linked to the abuser’s sense of powerlessness.24 Past history of abuseMany researchers have assumed that spouse abuse among older adults is a continuation of a longstanding pattern of spousal abuse, or "spouse abuse grown old".25 The homicide data from 1997 to 2000 indicates that 43% of individuals accused of committing a homicide against an older adult family member had a history of family violence with that victim.26 Environmental and systemic factorsWithin care giving environments and systems, many factors may increase older adults’ vulnerability to abuse.27 Institutions may be situated far from residents’ home communities, and they may not provide residents with access to or involvement in community or traditional activities (including traditional food and language).28 Care providers who are inadequately trained may lack the awareness, knowledge or skills to address (or avoid engaging in) abusive behaviour. They may experience high levels of stress and burn out, which may contribute to abuse. Institutions may have procedures and policies that do not adequately protect against harmful situations, or there may be poor enforcement of institutional standards. At the systemic level, there may be a lack of comprehensive policies for dealing with the infirm, and some researchers express concern that built-in financial incentives in the long-term care system may contribute to poor-quality care.29 Societal factorsNegative social attitudes about aging and discrimination against older adults in society 30 that devalue the elderly may contribute to abuse. Older adults’ vulnerability to abuse may also be increased by factors that affect both individuals and communities including living conditions (inadequate housing, geographic isolation), unemployment, dislocation31, colonization32, racism, homophobia, disability, economic vulnerability (including poverty), social isolation33, language or literacy skills, and lack of access to community and health services, housing, long-term care facilities, and to the criminal justice system. Many of the factors that increase older adults’ vulnerability to being abused may also compound the effects of the abuse.
WHAT ARE SOME POTENTIAL WARNING SIGNS OF ABUSE?Some of the signs that may indicate an older adult is being abused include:
WHAT ARE THE CONSEQUENCES OF ABUSE OF OLDER ADULTS?Abuse has serious consequences for older adults, as well as for perpetrators, families and communities. Physical injuries, for example, may exacerbate pre-existing or chronic health problems and make it more difficult for older adults to function independently. Among older adults victimized by family members in 2000, 37% suffered minor injuries and 2% suffered major injuries or death.36 Abuse may also damage older adults’ sense of self-worth and dignity and increase their social isolation. For some older adults – including those who have low incomes (4% of older men and 10% of older women in 200037) and those who cope with disabilities, language barriers, and/or geographic isolation – abuse compounds the effects of marginalization. For abusers, the consequences of abusing others may include shame, social rejection and damaged familial relationships. Those working in care giving settings risk dismissal or other sanctions. Anyone who, in abusing an older adult, commits a criminal offence risks criminal sanctions including incarceration and a criminal record. Abuse of older adults may also affect others around them. In addition to the pain and suffering experienced by victims, family members, friends, neighbours, volunteers and caregivers may feel confused, anxious, angry or helpless when an abusive act occurs. Communities also suffer when individuals who have been victimized no longer have the capacity to participate fully or make a positive contribution to their community. PREVENTING AND RESPONDING TO ABUSE OF OLDER ADULTSGiven the seriousness of abuse of older adults - as well as the complexity of this issue and its enormous impact - effective responses and culturally appropriate solutions require the ongoing commitment and collaboration of community members (including older adults and their families), practitioners and policy makers across Canada. The Role of the Department of Justice CanadaThe Department of Justice Canada, together with its partners - including provincial and territorial governments, non-governmental organizations and the private sector – addresses abuse of older adults through strategies that include legal reform, public legal education and information, research, and support for programs and services. The Department’s efforts have included involvement in the federal government’s Family Violence Initiative and the National Crime Prevention Strategy, as well as involvement in and support for the work of the Federal/Provincial/Territorial Ministers Responsible for Seniors Safety and Security Working Group and the Interdepartmental Committee on Aging and Seniors Issues (IDC-ASI). The Department also provided leadership for the federal Interdepartmental Working Group on Safety and Security of Seniors (IWG-SSS). REFORMING THE LAW AND ENHANCING ITS IMPLEMENTATIONTo date, much of the response to abuse of older adults has focused on the welfare and protection of older adults (see Other Protective Measures below). There are also many Criminal Code provisions that may be applicable in cases of abuse of older adults. Role of the Criminal CodeIn Canada, certain categories of abuse, such as fraud, assault, sexual assault, uttering threats and criminal harassment are crimes under the Criminal Code of Canada. Some types of abuse are also offences under provincial jurisdiction. Some of the Criminal Code provisions that may apply in cases of financial abuse include:
Some of the Criminal Code provisions that may apply in cases of physical and sexual abuse include:
Some of the Criminal Code provisions that may apply in cases of psychological abuse include:
The Criminal Code also includes a provision (s. 718.2) that requires the court to take into account for the purpose of sentencing as aggravating factors evidence that the offence was motivated by age- or disability-based bias, prejudice or hate. In addition, recent amendments to the Canada Evidence Actand the Criminal Coderemoved some of the barriers that prevent people with disabilities from fully participating in the justice system. These measures include:
Other protective measuresTo date, the law has largely expressed older adults’ interests in terms of physical or mental deterioration (e.g. guardianship, health law and substitute decision making) or dying (wills and estate planning).38 Some offences, such as abuse of Power of Attorney or contravention of the Trustee Act, are offences within provincial/territorial jurisdiction. Several jurisdictions in Canada have enacted social welfare or protection legislation to protect older adults who are victims of physical or sexual abuse, mental cruelty or inadequate care or attention. In jurisdictions where adult protection and guardianship legislation is in place there may be statutory adult protection service programs that offer a combination of legal, health and social service interventions. Balancing appropriate protection with the need to respect older adults’ independence is an ongoing issue. There are many ongoing challenges involved in having older adults’ relationships understood through the law and ensuring that their rights and needs are respected in the justice system.39 OTHER STRATEGIES TO PREVENT AND RESPOND TO THE ABUSE OF OLDER ADULTSPublic legal education and informationPublic legal education and information is a key strategy for addressing the issue of abuse of older adults. This includes providing older adults, care givers and service providers with plain language, accessible information about older adults’ legal rights and the criminal justice system. The Department supports public legal education and information programs across Canada to educate the public about family violence, including abuse of older adults. For example, Community Legal Education Ontario (CLEO) and the Advocacy Centre for the Elderly publish a booklet entitled Elder Abuse: The Hidden Crime, which is available online. Another resource, which has been sponsored by the Department, is a series of Canadian Legal Frequently Asked Questions, which include questions and answers about elder abuse. These are available online. Research, data collection and information sharingThe Department of Justice Canada collaborates with Statistics Canada on the design and analysis of national survey data on abuse of older adults. In recent years, data from the GSS has provided insight into the dynamics and impacts of this type of abuse. This information is used by many different organizations to enhance policies and programs to prevent and respond to abuse of older adults. Support for program and service deliveryThrough the National Crime Prevention Strategy and the Justice Partnership and Innovation Fund, the Department of Justice Canada supports community-based initiatives to address the issue of abuse of older adults. These projects may include, for example, awareness-raising activities, peer counseling programs, advocacy programs, or the establishment of community-based networks to consult and take action on the issue of abuse of older adults. The Department of Justice Canada also supports the efforts of Aboriginal communities in developing culturally appropriate approaches to addressing violence and abuse. SUGGESTED RESOURCES ON ABUSE OF OLDER ADULTSBeaulieu, Marie and Charmaine Spencer. Older Adults’ Personal Relationships and the Law in Canada: Legal, psycho-social and ethical aspects. Paper prepared for the Law Commission of Canada September 1999. Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile, 2000.Ottawa: Statistics Canada; Cat. No. 85-224-XPE, 2000. Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile, 2002.Ottawa: Statistics Canada; Cat. No. 85-224-XPE, 2002. Canada. Health Canada. Abuse and Neglect of Older Adults: A Discussion Paper. Prepared by L. McDonald and A. Collins for the Family Violence Prevention Unit, Health Canada. Ottawa: Health Canada, 2000. Available on Internet. Canada. Health Canada. National Clearinghouse Fact Sheets on Family Violence (series). Ottawa: Health Canada. Available on Internet. Glendenning, F. (1999). Elder abuse and neglect in residential settings: the need for inclusiveness in elder abuse research. Journal of Elder Abuse and Neglect, vol. 10, no. 1-2, pp. 1-11. Goodridge, D., Johnston, P. and M. Thomson (1996). Conflict and aggression as stressors in the work environment of nursing assistants: implications for institutional elder abuse. Journal of Elder Abuse and Neglect, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 49-67. Harbison, J. (1999). Models of intervention for "elder abuse and neglect": a Canadian perspective on ageism, participation and empowerment. Journal of Elder Abuse & Neglect, vol. 10, no.3/4, pp. 1-17. Kozak, J.F. and Lukawiecki, T. (1997). Abuse Prevention in Long Term Care: Educational Package. MacLean, Michael (Ed.) (1995). Abuse & Neglect of Older Canadians: Strategies for Change. (Toronto: Thompson Educational Publishing) Pritchard, Jackie (Ed.) (1999). Elder Abuse Work – Best Practice in Britain and Canada. (London and Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers) Spencer, Charmaine (1996). Abuse and Neglect of Native Elders. In: Russell, M. et al. (eds). Stopping the Violence – Changing Families, Changing Futures (British Columbia Institute on Family Violence) Wahl, Judith and Sheila Purdy. Elder Abuse: The Hidden Crime. Toronto: Advocacy Centre for the Elderly and Community Legal Education Ontario, 2000. University of Alberta. National Elder Abuse FAQs. Available on Internet. WHERE TO GET MORE INFORMATION ON ABUSE OF OLDER ADULTSNational Crime Prevention Strategy hNational Clearinghouse on Family Violence ENDNOTES1 In this fact sheet, "older adults" refers primarily to individuals 65 years of age and older because this is the group for which national data is available. 2 Canada. Health Canada. Abuse and Neglect of Older Adults: A Discussion Paper. Prepared by L. McDonald and A. Collins for the Family Violence Prevention Unit (Ottawa: Health Canada, 2000): 5 (Online) (Accessed February 6, 2003) Available on Internet. 3 The National Clearinghouse on Family Violence (NCFV) has published a number of resources on abuse of older adults including a fact sheet on self-neglect by older adults. This fact sheet and other relevant resources are available online. 4 Much of the information in this section is drawn from the following sources: Jean Kozak and Teresa Lukawiecki, Abuse Prevention in Long Term Care: Educational Package (1997); Judith Wahl and Sheila Purdy, Elder Abuse: The Hidden Crime (Toronto: Advocacy Centre for the Elderly and Community Legal Education Ontario, 2002); M.J. Stones, "Scope and Definition of Elder Abuse and Neglect in Canada" in Michael J. MacLean, Abuse and Neglect of Older Canadians: Strategies for Change (Ottawa: Canadian Association on Gerontology & Toronto: Thompson Educational Publishing, Inc., 1995); Canada. Health Canada. Abuse and Neglect of Older Adults: A Discussion Paper. Prepared by L. McDonald and A. Collins for the Family Violence Prevention Unit (Ottawa: Health Canada, 2000) (Online) (Accessed February 6, 2003) Available on Internet.; Canada. Statistics Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile 2002 No. 85-224 (Ottawa: Ministry of Industry, 2002); Charmaine Spencer, "Abuse and Neglect of Native Elders" in Mary Russell et al.(Eds.) Stopping the Violence, Changing Families, Changing Futures (British Columbia Institute on Family Violence, 1996). 5 Sexual assault and sexual exploitation are criminal offences in Canada. 6 This section presents the available national data on abuse of older adults. It is important to note, however, that, overall, older adults in Canada are less likely than other age groups in the population to be victims of violence in general. According to police-reported data for 2000, adults aged 65 years of age and older had the lowest risk of being a victim of violent crime compared to individuals in other age groups. Furthermore, older adults were twice as likely to be victimized by a non-family member – most often a stranger – than by a family member. Canada. Statistics Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile 2002 No. 85-224 (Ottawa: Ministry of Industry, 2002): 27-28. 7 Canada. Statistics Canada. Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile 2000 No. 85-224 (Ottawa: Minister of Industry, 2000): 6, 27-28. Note: The GSS is a telephone survey and therefore may not reach individuals who do not have a telephone, are infirm, have hearing difficulties, or are isolated in other ways. The GSS only interviews individuals living in private households; interviews with residents of institutions are not conducted in this survey. There is no national data on abuse of older adults in institutions. There is sufficient anecdoctal evidence, however, to suggest that abuse of older adults in institutions is a common feature of institutional life. See also: Canada. Statistics Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile 2002 No. 85-224 (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2002): 27; Canada. Health Canada. Abuse and Neglect of Older Adults: A Discussion Paper. Prepared by L. McDonald and A. Collins for the Family Violence Prevention Unit (Ottawa: Health Canada, 2000): 18 (Online) (Accessed February 6, 2003) Available on Internet. 8 Canada. Statistics Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile 2002 No. 85-224 (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2002): 27-28. 9 Canada. Statistics Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile 2002 No. 85-224 (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2002): 28. Currently, 166 police forces in 9 provinces participate in the UCR2 Survey, representing 53% of the national volume of reported crime. 10 Canada. Statistics Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile 2002 No. 85-224 (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2002): 28. 11 Canada. Statistics Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile 2002 No. 85-224 (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2002): 28. 12 Canada. Statistics Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile 2002 No. 85-224 (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2002): 29. 13 Canada. Statistics Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile 2002 No. 85-224 (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2002): 30. 14 Canada. Statistics Canada. Profile of the Canadian population by age and sex: Canada ages (Online) (Accessed February 5, 2003) Available on Internet. 15Canada. Statistics Canada. Profile of Canadian families and households: Diversification continues (Online) (Accessed February 5, 2003) Available on Internet. Note: In 2001, 35% of senior women and 61% of senior men lived with a spouse or partner (and no children). Among seniors, 13% of men and 12% of women live with at least one of their adult children. More than one-third (35%) of senior women and 16% of senior men live alone. Living alone, although less likely at an older age, is still more common for those 85 and older than it was in the past: the proportion of women 85 and older who live alone has increased 13%, compared to a 7% increase for men. In 2001, 287,480 seniors lived in health care institutions (9.2% of senior women and 4.9% of senior men). 16 Canada. Statistics Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile 2002 No. 85-224 (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2002): 26. 17 Canada. Statistics Canada. Profile of Canadian families and households: Diversification continues(Online) (Accessed February 5, 2003) Available on Internet. Note: Individuals who are 85 years of age and older are less likely to live with a spouse or a partner (only 7.2% of women in this age group and 39% of men). Those 85 years of age and older are the group most likely to live in health care institutions (although the proportion has declined for both women and men in this age group, compared to 1981).18 Beaulieu and Bélanger, 1995, as cited in Canada. Health Canada. Abuse and Neglect of Older Adults: A Discussion Paper. Prepared by L. McDonald and A. Collins for the Family Violence Prevention Unit (Ottawa: Health Canada, 2000): 17 (Online) (Accessed February 6, 2003) Available on Internet. 19 Canada. Statistics Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile 2002 No. 85-224 (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2002): 30. 20 Canada. Statistics Canada. Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile 2000 No. 85-224 (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2002): 28. 21 Canada. Health Canada. Abuse and Neglect of Older Adults: A Discussion Paper. Prepared by L. McDonald and A. Collins for the Family Violence Prevention Unit (Ottawa: Health Canada, 2000): 28 (Online) (Accessed February 6, 2003) Available on Internet. 22 McDonald, et al., 1991, Phillips, 1986, McDonald, 1996, Scogin et al., 1992, Pillemer, 1993, Pittaway and Westhues, 1993, as cited in Canada. Health Canada. Abuse and Neglect of Older Adults: A Discussion Paper. Prepared by L. McDonald and A. Collins for the Family Violence Prevention Unit (Ottawa: Health Canada, 2000): 29 (Online) (Accessed February 6, 2003) Available on Internet. 23 Canada. Health Canada. Abuse and Neglect of Older Adults: A Discussion Paper. Prepared by L. McDonald and A. Collins for the Family Violence Prevention Unit (Ottawa: Health Canada, 2000): 33 (Online) (Accessed February 6, 2003) Available on Internet. 24 Phillips, 1986, Pillemer and Wolf, 1986, Homer and Gilleard, 1990, Pillemer and Suitor, 1992, as cited in Canada. Health Canada. Abuse and Neglect of Older Adults: A Discussion Paper. Prepared by L. McDonald and A. Collins for the Family Violence Prevention Unit (Ottawa: Health Canada, 2000): 29 (Online) (Accessed February 6, 2003) Available on Internet. 25 Canada. Health Canada. Abuse and Neglect of Older Adults: A Discussion Paper. Prepared by L. McDonald and A. Collins for the Family Violence Prevention Unit (Ottawa: Health Canada, 2000): 30 (Online) (Accessed February 6, 2003) Available on Internet. 26 Canada. Statistics Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile 2002 No. 85-224 (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2002): 30. 27 Systemic abuse refers to institutional procedures and processes that result in or maintain harmful situations. Canada. Statistics Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile 2002 No. 85-224 (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2002): 26. 28 Charmaine Spencer, "Abuse and Neglect of Native Elders" in Mary Russell et al.(Eds.) Stopping the Violence, Changing Families, Changing Futures (British Columbia Institute on Family Violence, 1996):24 29 Marie Beaulieu and Lise Bélanger, "Interventions in Long-Term Care Institutions with Respect to Elder Mistreatment" in Michael J. Maclean (Ed.) Abuse and Neglect of Older Canadians: Strategies for Change (Ottawa: Canadian Association of Gerontology & Toronto: Thompson Educational Publishing Inc., 1995): 28-32. Canada. Health Canada. Abuse and Neglect of Older Adults: A Discussion Paper. Prepared by L. McDonald and A. Collins for the Family Violence Prevention Unit (Ottawa: Health Canada, 2000): 21 (Online) (Accessed February 6, 2003) Available on Internet. 30 Canada. Statistics Canada. Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile 2000 No. 85-224 (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2000): 27; Harbison, 1999, as cited in Canada. Statistics Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile 2002 No. 85-224 (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2002): 27; Canada. Health Canada. Abuse and Neglect of Older Adults: A Discussion Paper. Prepared by L. McDonald and A. Collins for the Family Violence Prevention Unit (Ottawa: Health Canada, 2000): 35 (Online) (Accessed February 6, 2003) Available on Internet.; Marie Beaulieu and Lise Bélanger, "Interventions in Long-Term Care Institutions with Respect to Elder Mistreatment" in Michael J. Maclean (Ed.) Abuse and Neglect of Older Canadians: Strategies for Change (Ottawa: Canadian Association of Gerontology & Toronto: Thompson Educational Publishing Inc., 1995): 29. 31 "Dislocation" means being removed from one’s language, culture, family and community. Dislocation is a situation that has affected Aboriginal children who were sent to residential schools and their families, as well as immigrants and refugees to Canada. 32 "Colonization" is "that process of encroachment and subsequent subjugation of Aboriginal peoples since the arrival of Europeans. From the Aboriginal perspective, it refers to loss of lands, resources, and self-direction and to the severe disturbance of cultural ways and values." Source: Emma D. LaRoque, Violence in Aboriginal Communities Reprinted from the Book "The Path to Healing" with permission from the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (Ottawa: Health Canada, 1994): 73. 33 Information on factors which increase vulnerability to abuse is based on the following publications: Canada, Health Canada, Like a Wingless Bird: A Tribute to the Survival and Courage of Women Who are Abused and Who Speak Neither English Nor French. Prepared by Linda MacLeod and Maria Shin (Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services Canada, 1994); Canada, Health Canada, Isolated, Afraid and Forgotten: The Service Delivery Needs and Realities of Immigrant and Refugee Women Who Are Battered. Prepared by Linda MacLeod and Maria Shin (Ottawa: Health and Welfare Canada, 1990); Rosalind Savary, "When Racism Meets Sexism: Violence Against Immigrant and Visible Minority Women", Vis-à-vis, 12, 1 (Ottawa: Canadian Council on Social Development, 1994); Canada, Health Canada. Abuse in Lesbian Relationships: Information and Resources. Prepared by Laurie C. Chesley, Donna MacAulay and Janice L. Ristock (Ottawa: Minister of Public Works and Government Services, 1998); Beth Leventhal and Sandra E. Lundy (Editors) Same-Sex Domestic Violence: Strategies for Change (Thousand Oaks: CA: Sage Publications, Inc., 1999); Canada, Department of Justice Canada, Research Report – The Ontario Rural Woman Abuse Study (ORWAS): Final Report. Prepared by Lori Biesenthal, Lynne Dee Sproule, Mary Nelder, Susan Golton, Donna Mann, Denise Podovinnikoff, Inge Roosendaal, Shellie Warman and Donna Lunn (Ottawa: Department of Justice Canada, 2000); Canada, Department of Justice Canada, Barriers to Justice: Ethnocultural Minority Women and Domestic Violence: A Preliminary Discussion Paper. Prepared by Nahid Roboubi and Sharon Bowles (Ottawa: Department of Justice, 1995); L’Institut Roeher Institute, Harm’s Way: The Many Faces of Violence and Abuse Against Persons with Disabilities (Toronto: L’Institut Roeher Institute, 1995); Alliance of the Five Research Centres on Violence, Violence Prevention and the Girl Child: Final Report (Research funded by Status of Women Canada, 1999); Canada, Health Canada, Breaking the Links Between Poverty and Violence Against Women. Prepared by Jane Gurr, Louise Mailloux, Dianne Kinnon and Susan Doerge (Ottawa: Ministry of Supply and Services Canada, 1996); Law Commission of Canada, Restoring Dignity: Responding to Child Abuse in Canadian Institutions (Ottawa: Minister of Public Works and Government Services, 2001); Emma D. LaRoque, Violence in Aboriginal Communities Reprinted from the Book "The Path to Healing" with permission from the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (Ottawa: Health Canada, 1994); and Canada, Health Canada, Family Violence in Aboriginal Communities: An Aboriginal Perspective – Information from the National Clearinghouse on Family Violence. Prepared by Karen Green (Ottawa: Health Canada, 1996). 34 Canada. Statistics Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile 2002 No. 85-224 (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2002): 37. See also: Canada. Statistics Canada. Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile 2000 No. 85-224 (Ottawa: Minister of Industry, 2000): 6, 28-29. 35 Judith Wahl and Sheila Purdy, Elder Abuse: The Hidden Crime (Toronto: Advocacy Centre for the Elderly and Community Legal Education Ontario, 2002): 4. 36 Canada. Statistics Canada. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile 2002 No. 85-224 (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2002): 37. See also: Canada. Statistics Canada. Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile 2000 No. 85-224 (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2002): 30-31. 37 Canada. Statistics Canada. Persons in low income after tax. (Online) (Accessed February 5, 2003) Available on Internet. Note: For unattached individuals aged 65 years and over, 17% of men and 21% of women had low incomes after tax in 2000. 38 Marie Beaulieu and Charmaine Spencer, "Older Adults’ Personal Relationships and the Law in Canada: Legal, psycho-social and ethical aspects" Paper prepared for the Law Commission of Canada, September, 1999. 39 Ibid. |
 |
 |
|||
| Last Updated: 2006-07-06 |  |
Important Notices | ||
