Geomagnetic Storms - Reducing the Threat to Critical Infrastructure in Canada This report has been compiled to assist Canadian critical infrastructure (CI) owners and operators with their emergency management planning by discussing how geomagnetic storms can impact CI and by addressing ways in which industry can mitigate the impacts of these potentially dangerous storms. This report also illustrates some of the proactive practices that Canadian industry has implemented to avoid prolonged negative effects from geomagnetic storms. This document was derived primarily from open sources and draws on a variety of public and private information current to 29 April 2002. Executive Summary
The phenomenon of geomagnetic currents was first noticed in 1847. In this year, the telegraph was the primary method of communication and relied on batteries for power. Once, however, while an Aurora Borealis was occurring, telegraph operators observed a disruption in the transmission of communications. When the power was switched off, the geomagnetically induced currents (GIC) 1 or "celestial power" allowed transmissions to be conducted at a better quality than with the use of batteries. GICs are a result of erupting sunspots. Sunspots are massive dark areas on the surface of the sun that lie on top of hurricanes of electrified gas. When sunspots erupt, they release a coronal mass ejection (CME) 2 at approximately 2 million miles per hour. Geomagnetic storms occur when the CME impacts the Earth's magnetosphere, thereby disturbing the solar wind and reducing the global magnetic field. While these powerful storms usually trigger auroras, they can also damage energy and communication systems. 1 According to Faraday's law of induction, a temporal change of a magnetic field is always accompanied by an electric field. Therefore, an electric field is associated with geomagnetic activity. The geomagnetic variation and the geoelectric field observed at the earth's surface depend primarily on ionospheric-magnetospheric currents and secondarily on currents and charges induced in earth. A part of the earth currents can flow into man-made conductors, like power transmission systems, pipelines, telecommunication cables and railroads. Such currents are called geomagnetically induced currents (GIC). 2 An observable change in coronal structure that occurs on a time scale between a few minutes and several hours, and involves the appearance of a new, discrete, bright white-light feature in the coronograph field of view. They are associated with the large-scale, closed magnetic structures in the corona. When a coronal mass ejection occurs, a large quantity of material (10^15 - 10^16 g) is sporadically ejected from the Sun into interplanetary space. The speed of the leading edge of the coronal mass ejection may vary from 50 km/s to 1200 km/s. Average speed is about 400 km/s. The average heliocentric width is about 45 degrees. Large geomagnetic storms are caused by coronal mass ejections.
Since 1940, there have been formidable geomagnetic storm events. An intense storm on Easter Sunday 1940 affected both the telegraph and power systems in North America. The storm compromised nearly all overseas radiotelephone circuits, radio service to ships at sea and several long distance land telephone transmissions. The negative effects on land lasted for approximately 6 hours. Considered one of the worst geomagnetic storms of the 20th century, another
noteworthy geomagnetic event with severe consequences for Canada's energy
sector occurred on March 13, 1989. At 02:45 EST on March 13, geomagnetically
induced currents (GIC) inundated the transformers of the Hydro-Quebec
power system and overloaded them with current. The voltage fluctuations
that resulted prompted the tripping, or deactivation, of reactive power
compensators at the Chibougamau, la Verendrye, Nemiscau and Albanel substations.
A severe voltage drop resulted, the power lines from James Bay malfunctioned
and the system collapsed. It was later determined that the power lines
were substantially vulnerable due to their great length and the number
of static compensators that run along their distance. Static compensators
stabilize the power system and allow more AC power to flow through, creating
a higher efficiency in the system. When compensators trip out, however,
the system becomes unstable. In the end, approximately 19, 400 megawatts
of power in Quebec, and millions of dollars in revenue, had been lost.
Restoration of services took approximately nine hours; however, by noon
on March 13, 17 per cent of Hydro-Quebec's customers were still without
power. Solar Cycles are consecutive groups of geomagnetic storm activity that repeat approximately every 11 years. Solar Cycle 22 occurred between September 1986 and May 1996. Currently, we are in Solar Cycle 23 and April 2000 was thought to be the peak of this cycle's activity. Recently, it was discovered that Solar Cycle 23 is peaking for the second time. The second peak of this cycle appears to be only a few percent smaller than the first peak. This double-peaking phenomenon was last observed during Solar Cycle 22. The first peak occurred in 1989 and the second peak occurred in 1991. Past observations have indicated that odd numbered solar cycles are more severe than even numbered ones. Since events of the last solar cycle were above average, it can be expected that the current cycle has the potential to be severe as well. In the following paragraphs, two major infrastructure groups will be
discussed: energy and communications. The discussions will include the
effects of geomagnetic activity on energy and communications, the extent
to which these infrastructures are vulnerable to geomagnetic storms, and
the action that can be taken to minimize the negative effects of GICs.
This paper will also explore various practises that Canadian industry
is utilising to mitigate effects of geomagnetic storms on Canada's critical
infrastructure.
During a geomagnetic storm, several important elements of the energy sector can suffer adverse effects if they are not protected. Intense electric currents flowing throughout the ionosphere can induce voltage surges on power grids, trigger the melting or malfunctioning of transformers and cause the overloading of electrical grids. As a consequence of this activity, blackout conditions can result over a large area and pipelines can suffer cumulative damage from corrosion. Power Systems Power stations may experience increased vulnerability due to advances in technology. Modern power systems are interconnected in such a way that they are quite stable and are safeguarded against localized failures. This interconnectedness, however, can lead to increased vulnerability in some circumstances. When a solar storm damages one system, systems connected to it can experience failure as well. Also, some systems that experienced problems during the last peak in Solar Cycle 22 may be stressed because they are currently increasing the electrical load on their systems and, in turn, can be more affected by geomagnetic events that happen during Solar Cycle 23. Preventative measures have been implemented to avoid events such as the
1989 Quebec blackout. System operators in Canada have developed and implemented
procedures to respond to these emergencies, thereby reducing potential
damage due to GICs. Since 1989, Hydro-Quebec has spent more than $1.2
billion installing transmission line series capacitors. These capacitors
block GIC flow in order to prevent them from causing damage to the system.
Hydro-Quebec has also installed monitoring equipment that spots voltage
fluctuations and immediately notifies operators so that they may redistribute
the load to other parts of the network. Additional protective measures
include disconnecting the links between power grids, desensitizing automatic
control systems, delaying power station maintenance and delaying the replacement
of equipment. Utilities are also relying on space weather forecasting
to help remain operational during geomagnetic storms. Operators can implement
conservative operating procedures once they have received an advance warning
of a storm threat. Pipelines Pipelines that have insulating flanges can be more vulnerable to damaging electric currents. The flanges are meant to interrupt current flow; however, it has been discovered that the flanges create an additional site where the electric potential can build up and force the current flow to ground. The flanges lead to an increased risk for corrosion. The length of the pipeline also adds to its vulnerability due to the increased potential for corrosion. The geomagnetic dimension of corrosion protection design and the monitoring
of pipelines is being recognized as a topic that requires immediate attention.
Canadian pipeline operators were among the first to recognize that geomagnetic
storms negatively affect pipelines and are world leaders in the design
of systems that mitigate possible impacts. Mitigation activities include
simulating electric currents in pipeline networks and pre-designing corrosion
protection systems that have the ability to properly deal with geomagnetic
effects. This work, combined with frequent monitoring, can help to avoid
the long-term cumulative effects of GICs on pipelines. Geological Perspective
Communication technology can be vulnerable to the effects of a geomagnetic storm. Since the introduction of coaxial cables in the 20th century, the bandwidth of communication systems has increased but cables now require repeater amplifiers along their length. These amplifiers compensate for the loss of signal strength over distance and are connected in series with the centre conductor of the cable. Amplifiers are powered by a direct current supplied from terminal stations at either ends of the cable. The varying magnetic field that occurs during a geomagnetic storm induces a voltage into the centre of the coaxial cable increasing or decreasing the voltage coming from the cable power supply. The induced voltage experienced during a geomagnetic storm can produce an overload of electricity on the cable system and, in turn, cause a high current shutdown. Submarine cables are now using optical fibres to carry communication signals; however, there is still a conductor through the cable that carries power to the repeaters. Cables installed in the future may use fewer repeaters and require a lower driving voltage, which will assist in reducing the negative impact of a geomagnetic storm. If the power feed equipment, however, is downsized without considering the induced voltages, communication systems will become more vulnerable. Geomagnetic storms can also impact satellites and spacecrafts. Geosynchronous
satellites are at risk of being exposed to a hostile environment. Changes
in the Earth's magnetic field confuse navigational sensors such as the
Global Positioning System (GPS) and the sensors on satellites. Satellites
can experience orbital decay problems such as increased drag, as a result
of the increasing atmospheric temperature and subsequent expansion. Surveying practices rely heavily on technology for activities such as mapping. This sensitive technology, however, can be vulnerable to the effects of GICs. In order to safeguard surveying activities, and avoid magnetic disturbances that can produce false results, high-resolution land surveying, magnetic surveying and exploration can be delayed until the threat from GICs is no longer significant. The communications industry in Canada is working toward mitigating impacts
from geomagnetic storms. Many of the suggested remedies mentioned above
are being practised in order to reduce negative effects from GICs. In
addition to this, they are relying on space weather forecasting to indicate
when conservative operating procedures should be initiated.
The prediction and advance warning of geomagnetic storms assist industry and public in avoiding adverse effects of GICs. There have been numerous technologies developed that gather data to support prediction activities. For example, x-ray based observations provide a very detailed and inclusive picture of the magnetic structure of the sun and its CMEs. This tool provides forecasts two to three days in advance with approximately 50 per cent accuracy. One of the most reliable forecasting tools is the Solar and Heliospheric
Observatory (SOHO), which was launched by the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA) and the European Space Agency (ESA) on 2 December
1995. This satellite provides images of large eruptions on the surface
of the sun and is considered to be a valuable tool in the field of space
weather forecasting. In addition to these three tools, new accurate warning devices are being developed to predict potential storm impact, and to assess the appropriate response measures to be used by critical infrastructure owners and operators.
Geomagnetic storms, although infrequent, have the potential to severely impair critical infrastructure. In Canada, it has been demonstrated that power systems, pipelines and communications are at risk from the damaging effects of CMEs and GICs. Consequences of geomagnetic storm activity can include widespread power failures, pipeline corrosion, the shutdown of cable systems, an increased drag on satellites, inaccurate navigational sensors and the loss of millions of dollars in revenue. Canadian infrastructure owners and operators have developed effective
operating procedures to deal with the threat of geomagnetic storms. Also,
advance warning systems such as ACE and SOHO are providing infrastructure
owners and operators with the necessary information to prevent negative
consequences due to GICs.
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Retrieved January 24, 2002 from the Science @ NASA web site: http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/ast07nov_1.htm Space Today Online. (2002). The Sun. Retrieved January 24, 2002, from http://www.spacetoday.org/SolSys/Sun/Sunspots.html Thompson, Richard. (1995). Power Failure in Canada During 1989. IPS Radio & Space Services. Retrieved November 26, 2001, from http://www.ips.gov.au/papers/richard/power_1989.html Note to Readers Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness Canada (PSEPC) collects information related to cyber and physical threats to, and incidents involving, Canadian critical infrastructure. This allows us to monitor and analyse threats and to issue alerts, advisories and other information products. To report threats or incidents, please contact the PSEPC Government Operations Centre (GOC) at (613) 991-7000 or opscen@ocipep-bpiepc.gc.ca by e-mail. Unauthorized use of computer systems and mischief in relation to data are serious Criminal Code offences in Canada. Any suspected criminal activity should be reported to local law enforcement organizations. The RCMP National Operations Centre (NOC) provides a 24/7 service to receive such reports or to redirect callers to local law enforcement organizations. The NOC can be reached at (613) 993-4460. National security concerns should be reported to the Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) at (613) 993-9620. Links to sites not under the control of the Government of Canada (GoC) are provided solely for the convenience of users. The GoC is not responsible for the accuracy, currency or the reliability of the content. The GoC does not offer any guarantee in that regard and is not responsible for the information found through these links, nor does it endorse the sites and their content. |
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