Factsheet: Crime
Prevention Through Social Development
Introduction
The annual cost of crime to Canadians is estimated to be $59 billion
(1). The overwhelming majority
of criminal justice system expenditures in Canada are related to
police, courts, and corrections—the agencies that have been
traditionally responsible for crime detection and control. However,
since the mid-1980s, Canada, like many other countries, has shifted
more resources to addressing crime through a balanced strategy that
incorporates conventional methods of crime control as well as innovative
approaches to crime prevention.
The Government of Canada plays a key role in promoting crime prevention
in Canada, through the National Crime Prevention Strategy. The National
Strategy is administered by the Department of Justice and the Ministry
of Solicitor General Canada. It is designed to promote a “balanced
approach” to reducing crime and victimization by focusing
primarily on crime prevention through social development. While
there are many types of crime prevention strategies, most can be
classified under two broad categories — situational crime
prevention and crime prevention through social development:
- situational crime prevention strategies seek to reduce the
availability and attractiveness of opportunities for criminal
activity;
- crime prevention through social development focuses on the
root causes of crime and victimization.
This fact sheet provides information about crime prevention through
social development. For information about situational crime prevention,
please refer to the National Crime Prevention Centre’s fact
sheet on Situational Crime Prevention.
Crime Prevention Through Social Development: What
is it?
Crime Prevention through Social Development (CPSD) is an approach
to preventing crime and victimization that recognizes the complex
social, economic, and cultural processes that contribute to crime
and victimization. CPSD seeks to strengthen the “bridge”
between criminal justice policies and programs and the safe, secure,
and pro-social development of individuals, families, and communities.
It does this by tackling the factors, which contribute to crime
and victimization, that are amenable to change (2).
Focuses on Risk Factors Associated with Crime and Victimization.
While recognizing that societal influences such as poverty, gender
inequality, media violence, racism, and discrimination are part
of the crime prevention context, CPSD tends to concentrate on secondary
prevention measures. This involves focusing on the many risk factors
that contribute to involvement with crime (3).
Some key examples include:
- inadequate living conditions, such as poor housing and unstable
situations;
- family factors, such as family poverty, family size, poor or
inadequate parenting, parental criminality, and parental substance
abuse;
- individual personality and behavioural factors, such as “cognitive
deficits” including a lack of problem- solving skills, self-control,
critical reasoning, judgment and failure to consider the consequences
of behaviour, hyperactivity, as well as the early onset of aggressive
behaviour;
- peer association, such as relationships with friends who follow
a delinquent/criminal lifestyle;
- school-related factors, such as poor educational achievement
and truancy, as well as deficient school environments, and exclusionary
policies;
- employment opportunities, such as a lack of training and employment.
CPSD seeks to foster “protective factors” such as positive
family support that may mitigate situations of risk or disadvantage
that contribute to crime and victimization. These protective factors
also tend to reduce the risk of harm (4).
Builds a Comprehensive Approach to Crime Prevention. CPSD involves
implementing solutions that can comprehensively address factors
associated with crime and victimization. CPSD makes connections
beyond the traditional criminal justice sphere, by recognizing the
important role that policies, programs, and services such as social
housing, education, health, income security, and social services
play in preventing crime (5). At the same time, CPSD does not function
in isolation from traditional crime prevention and crime control
measures. For example, a comprehensive crime prevention approach
for a safer community may include measures to address the immediate
objective of protecting the public through the efforts of the police,
courts, and corrections. At the same time, it may direct resources
to social and community development strategies that will help to
create an environment that will reduce the risk factors associated
with criminal behaviour and victimization over the long term (6). Consequently,
CPSD involves a range of players from various sectors working together
to prevent crime problems.
A Long-term Investment. Because CPSD focuses on the social development
end of the crime prevention equation, it can take time for the crime
prevention benefits to accrue. For example, children and youth are
the focus of many CPSD strategies. Some of the best known CPSD programs
involve early intervention with children at risk and their parents.
Pioneering programs such as the Perry Pre-School Project in Michigan,
the Hawaii Healthy Start Project, and a new generation of “Headstart”
programs in Canada (such as Moncton Headstart and Aboriginal Headstart)
create supportive environments for children who are at potential
risk of later life criminality. These programs demonstrate the ways
in which supportive strategies can significantly improve child development,
educational achievement and social adjustment, and reduce the likelihood
of later involvement in crime (7).
A Research-Based Approach. CPSD is informed by the results of longitudinal
research studies conducted in various parts of the world, including
New Zealand, England, the United States, Canada, and Sweden (8). Longitudinal
studies have provided solid evidence on the ways in which social
development programs targeted to “at-risk” individuals,
families, and communities “level the playing field”
and help to reduce criminality. In Canada, studies such as the Montreal
longitudinal experimental Study (9), conducted in the mid-1980s and
the Early Years Study (10), published in 1999 in Ontario have brought
insight into the ways social, economic, and home environments affect
family life and the lives of children. These studies underscore
the importance of early intervention where risk factors are present.
A Brief History of Crime Prevention Through Social Development
CPSD programs draw on over 50 years of research and practical
experience, primarily from western European countries, the United
States, and Canada. Over the years, a range of factors that contribute
to crime and victimization and undermine community safety have been
identified.
Within Canada, it can be said that CPSD has been practised—but
not named as such—for many years. Inspired by the work and
ideas of people such as Irvin Waller and Dick Weiler (11), the concept
came to the fore of criminal justice policy in the early 1980s.
In 1993, the Twelfth Report of the Standing Committee on Justice
and the Solicitor General (12) (the Horner report) was issued and the
Department of Justice Canada organized a national symposium on community
safety (13). These events laid the foundation for a crime prevention
policy in Canada that explicitly included a social development component.
In the 1990s, the work of the National Crime Prevention Council,
which was established by the Department of Justice Canada and the
Solicitor General of Canada (in concert with the work of provincial
and territorial governments, municipalities, and community groups)
built CPSD models and strategies for intervention.
Since the 1980s, CPSD has branched in many directions. At the community
level, there is growing recognition that community safety is a fundamental
aspect of a healthy community. CPSD contributes to community health
by building local capacities to prevent crime. This may include
formal and informal networks, and a particular focus on the needs
of those most at risk. CPSD also encompasses various kinds of family
intervention and support programs, as well as programs that target
individual factors associated with crime and victimization.
Crime Prevention Through Social Development Strategies
There are many kinds of strategies under the CPSD banner. The
following types of CPSD strategies have been introduced in many
Canadian communities:
Individual-Level Strategies focus on addressing existing deficits
that may place individuals at risk of involvement in criminality.
Many of these programs target children and youth. “Wrap-around”
programs that place the client at the centre of the intervention
and tailor a range of supportive services are examples of individual-level
CPSD strategies (14).
Family-Oriented Strategies are also a focus of CPSD. Programs that
provide parenting support and training to the parents of young,
at-risk children strengthen family capacity and create healthy environments
where children are nurtured.
Community-Level Strategies seek to strengthen local capacity to
prevent crime. They frequently involve partnerships, and help to
build connections among individuals. Other kinds of community level
strategies involve community outreach programs. Examples include
police/youth mentoring programs, peer support programs and programs
where community elders teach their values and traditions. Programs
that provide socially and culturally appropriate opportunities for
recreation and cultural expression, as well as programs that build
pro-social skills among at-risk youth, are other examples.
Characteristics of CPSD Programs (15)
Many social and health programs have implications for crime and
its prevention, but that does not mean that all should be regarded
as CPSD programs, particularly where crime prevention is not the
primary goal. CPSD programs explicitly and proactively aim to prevent
crime and victimization. Although research on effective CPSD programs
is in its infancy, based on preliminary findings, quality CPSD programs
seem to share the following characteristics:
Orientation
CPSD programs are based on crime and victimization theory and
empirical research that supports what is being targeted and why.
CPSD programs identify and focus on specific causal risk factors
that have been shown to relate to crime and victimization. They
offer an explicit model of change—a model that shows a plausible
link between the identified risk factors and the actual intervention.
Design
CPSD programs identify the crime problem that they seek to prevent
and lay out clear goals and objectives to address the problem. Most
importantly, they focus on risk factors associated with crime and
identify specific ways to address them.
CPSD programs are accessible, easily obtained, and affordable for
users. A participatory approach that meaningfully involves users
in the design, implementation, and evaluation of the program is
also characteristic of CPSD. CPSD programs are about people and
their communities. They coordinate and collaborate with other programs
and services in the community, that have supports and linkages to
other programs and services. They may involve formal and informal
partnerships.
Integrity
To operate with integrity, CPSD programs need to have adequate
means to do what they set out to do, including policies to guide
program delivery and to ensure that there is accountability for
results.
Environment
CPSD program environments are structured and organized to have
a positive influence in the community. They are coordinated with
other services and supports. They are acceptable to users and to
the community at large. They deliver programs in an integrated manner
so that it is possible to address multiple risk factors in coordinated
and efficient ways.
Resources
CPSD programs are offered by qualified, trained staff and volunteers
whose values, attitudes and style of interaction are consistent
with program goals. Resources (whether financial or in-kind) are
required for project start-up, ongoing implementation, and research
and evaluation. Material resources also come into play in crime
prevention, because they enhance the social infrastructure. This
includes having the places and spaces as well as the equipment and
trained staff to implement programs.
Research and Evaluation
Research and evaluation are critical tools to design, plan, guide,
and shape crime prevention through social development activities
and to measure program results. Research and evaluation feeds into
the ongoing process of policy and program refinement. Obtaining
information on results can be challenging because crime prevention
through social development is a long-term investment and many of
the results are hard to quantify. It is important to obtain some
short-term, independent measures of program effectiveness while
keeping an eye on the long-term goals. Both quantitative and qualitative
research techniques are important tools to help people understand
the value and impact of CPSD.
(Click image to enlarge)
Sustainability
Individuals, families, and communities need knowledge, skills,
and resources to prevent crime. Crime prevention through social
development aims to create sustainable strategies that build on
existing strengths. Innovative approaches that include elements
like mentorship, peer support, and community networks can help to
ensure sustainability.
Questions and Concerns
Critics argue that because CPSD is so “elastic,” it
runs the danger of becoming either too diffused-or too dominant-within
social policy (16). This concern speaks to the need to clarify the
theories behind CPSD; the need to define its scope of influence
and clarify the boundaries, bridges, and relationships between crime
prevention and social policies and programs.
And at a practical level, it also speaks to the need for players
across disciplines and sectors to forge new ways of working together.
Intersectoral or interdisciplinary partnerships, for example, can
generate new ways to address crime prevention, but these partnerships
can also pose challenges as new working relationships are put into
place (17).
It must be recognized that CPSD is a relatively young field of
practice and it will take time to learn how best to implement CPSD
and yield results. There are many unresolved challenges in efforts
to identify effective ways to address the multiplicity of risk factors
associated with crime and victimization. Ongoing research and evaluation
of the effectiveness of CPSD is required.
- National Crime Prevention Council, Economic
Analysis Committee, Money Well Spent: Investing in Preventing
Crime (Ottawa, 1996), p. 14.
- International Centre for the Prevention of
Crime, Crime Prevention Digest II: Comparative Analysis of Successful
Community Safety (1999) Available from the ICPS Web site at http://www.crime-prevention-intl.org.
- For a brief summary, see Adam Crawford, Crime
Prevention and Community Safety: Politics, Policies and Practices.
(London: Longman, 1999), pp. 110-111. See also International Centre
for the Prevention of Crime Crime Prevention Digest II: Comparative
Analysis of Successful Community Safety (1999).
- John Howard Society of Alberta (1995) Crime
Prevention Through Social Development: A Resource Guide.
- The Canadian Criminal Justice Association,
Safer Communities: A Social Strategy for Crime Prevention in Canada
(1989), p. 4.
- Ibid. p. 23.
- International Centre for the Prevention of
Crime, Crime Prevention Digest II: Comparative Analysis of Successful
Community Safety (1999), p. 27.
- For an overview of recent studies, refer to
the International Centre for the Prevention of Crime Crime Prevention
Digest II: Comparative Analysis of Successful Community Safety
(1999), pp. 20-22. See also M. Tonry, and D.P. Farrington, Building
a Safer Society: Crime and Justice:A Review of Research, vol.
19 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1995).
- For a summary, refer to the International
Centre for the Prevention of Crime, Crime Prevention Digest II:
Comparative Analysis of Successful Community Safety (1999), p.
29.
- The Early Tears Study: Final report (April
1999) prepared by an expert Reference Group, co-chaired by Margaret
Norrie McCain and J. Fraser Mustard.
- Waller, Irvin and Dick Weiler, Crime Prevention
Through Social Development. (Ottawa: Canadian Council on Social
Development, 1985).
- Standing Committee on Justice and the Solicitor
General, Crime Prevention in Canada: Toward a National Strategy
(Ottawa, 1993).
- Department of Justice Canada, “Proceedings
of the National Symposium on Community Safety and Crime Prevention,
March 10-12, 1993, Toronto, Ontario” (Ottawa, 1993).
- Nick Nicoloff, “Re-Connecting Youth.
Integrating Welfare and Children's Mental Health Services to Serve
Adolescents and Their Families,” Five Year Review. Ontario
Associations of Children's Aid Societies Journal, Vol. 43, Number
13, October, 1999.
- This section is based information contained
in the John Howard Society of Alberta Crime Prevention Through
Social Development: A Resource Guide, (1995) as well as the results
of the National Crime Prevention Centre's January 19, 2000 Crime
Prevention Through Social Development Workshop, held in Ottawa,
Ontario.
- Adam Crawford, Crime Prevention and Community
Safety: Policies, Policies and Practices (London: 2Longman, 1999),
pp. 121-122.
- For a discussion of the role of partnerships
in social change and other strategies, see Sherri Torjman, Partnerships:
The Good, The Bad and The Uncertain. (Ottawa: Caledon Institute,1998).
For a discussion and critique of partnerships in the field of
crime prevention, see Adam Crawford, Crime Prevention and Community
Safety: Policies, Policies and Practices (London: Longman, 1999),
pp. 161-192.
For more information
Please visit the National Crime Prevention
Strategy Web site at: www.prevention.gc.ca
Or contact us toll-free at: (877) 302-6272
E-mail: info@prevention.gc.ca
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