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8.0 Pulling it Together: Concluding Remarks
8.1 Key Research Points
Working with Victims of Crime: A Manual Applying Research to Clinical Practice
8.0 Pulling it Together: Concluding Remarks 
Crime victims deserve timely, effective interventions that help them cope with their victimization and return
to the best level of functioning possible. This manual is designed to provide recent research information to help
workers develop and deliver services. Those who deliver front-line services to crime victims can often be faced
with people dealing with extreme distress, poor coping, mental health issues, little social support, repeated
victimization and so forth. Basically, victims are a diverse group and will have diverse reactions and require
diverse services. It is important to note that all workers in victim services are dealing with these complex
issues, from reception staff dealing with walk-in visits and telephone calls to those workers conducting groups
and individual interventions. All these people can benefit from the information in this manual.
All workers should spend some time and effort in identifying and practicing self-care activities. These skills
will help them take care of themselves, their clients and their colleagues. Workers must be in their best mental
state to help victims with decision-making, learn new coping strategies, address supports, build motivation.
Further, workers can use the above research and theoretical information to help understand likely victim
reactions and to improve intervention planning. By being forewarned, workers can adjust their interventions to
the specific needs of each client. Such adjustments are central to bringing clients the best service possible.
Workers should also note that the information and skills discussed above may help others affected by crime, such
as the victim's natural support system. Workers are likely very familiar with working with the victims supports
in ensuring a healthy environment for the victim.
8.1 Key Research Points
As noted above, one goal of this manual is to give workers a reference to key research findings and to make
links to helping victims. This section summarizes much of the above research for quick reference. By using
Casarez-Levison's (1992) model to anchor key research findings, readers may gain insight into what faces the crime
victim as he copes with victimization and recovery. Workers may want to keep the following issues in mind when
working with victims and their supports.
Previctimization/organization
This stage focuses on the previctimization adaptation level of the person (Casarez-Levison, 1992). Here workers
will want to gather a relatively comprehensive history, either through a formal interview or their normal way of
gathering information. The following elements should be covered:
- History of childhood physical and sexual abuse (Messman & Long, 1996; Nishith et al., 2000; Pimlott-Kubiak &
Cortina, 2003);
- History of previous PTSD (Brunet et al., 2001);
- Severity of previous PTSD episode(s) (Brunet et al., 2001);
- History of previous crime victimization or trauma (Byrne et al., 1999; Messman & Long, 1996; Norris et al.,
1997; Nishith et al., 2000; Ozer et al., 2003);
- Psychiatric history, especially depression (Ozer et al., 2003);
- Family history of psychiatric problems (Ozer et al., 2003);
- Personality characteristics (Davis et al., 1998; Nolen-Hoeksema & Davis, 1999; Thompson et al., 2002);
- Coping history (Dempsey, 2002; Everly et al., 2000; Harvey & Bryant, 2002);
- Interpersonal relationship history (Kliewer, Murrelle, Mejia, Torres de G & Angold, 2001; Mikulincer et al.,
1993; Nelson et al., 2002).
Victimization / disorganization
This stage focuses on the crime, and the first few hours or days following the crime (Casarez-Levison, 1992).
Victims and their workers need to be aware of the following:
- Crime characteristics, especially severity, have a profound effect on trauma (Gilboa-Schechtman& Foa, 2001;
Norris et al., 1997; Ozer et al., 2003);
- Victim characteristics such as gender, age, history, etc. can affect the victim's reaction (Brewin et al., 2000,
Greenberg & Ruback, 1992; Pimlott-Kubiak & Cortina, 2003; Wilmsen-Thornhill & Thornhill, 1991; Weinrath, 2000);
- Caution regarding secondary victimization by the system (Campbell et al., 1999; Hagemann, 1992; Norris et al.,
1997);
- Dissociation during or immediately following the crime is a strong predictor of PTSD (Halligan et al., 2003;
Ozer et al., 2003);
- Trauma memories are more disorganized than non-trauma memories (Halligan et al., 2003);
- Initial dissociation (shock) may be adaptive in some cases in that it may interfere with encoding into the
long-term memory (Bromberg, 2003);
- There may be a narrowing of attention (Holman & Silver, 1998);
- There is a need for social support (emotional, informational, appraisal and instrumental);
- Gathering information aimed at helping the victim make decisions;
- Gathering information about resources and common reactions;
- Emotional reactions need to be experienced and processed;
- Assess the victim's coping strategies;
- Crisis intervention models may be useful in helping the victim overcome the initial challenges of surviving
a crime (Calhoun & Atkeson, 1991).
Transition/ protection
This stage focuses on how the person begins to deal with the victimization and its meaning (Casarez-Levison,
1992). Professional workers are more likely to be actively involved with victims as they move through this stage.
- Natural and professional supports could be accessed (Casarez-Levison, 1992);
- May apply the Transtheoretical Model of Change to help identify what level of service is needed (Prochaska et
al., 1992);
- Dissociation may indicate later difficulties (Ozer et al. 2003);
- There may be active blocking of memories (Thompson, 2000);
- Victims may avoid crime related reminders, either through drugs/alcohol or active avoidance (Everly et al.,
2000; Hagemann, 1992; Mezy, 1988; Wolkenstein & Sterman, 1998);
- Victims may engage in safety-oriented behaviours (Hagemann, 1992);
- Victims may focus on meaning making (Gorman, 2001; Layne et al., 2001; Nolen-Hoeksema & Davis, 1999; Thompson,
2000);
- Social comparison is often used to understand victimization (Hagemann, 1992; Greenberg & Ruback, 1992;
Thompson, 2000);
- Victims may engage in self-comparison activities, focused on pre/post victimization changes
(McFarland & Alvaro, 2000);
- Active treatment may be initiated (Casarez-Levison, 1992);
- Victims need to be informed that entering treatment may mean getting worse before getting better (Nishith et
al, 2002);
- Treatments of PTSD including an exposure element seem to be effective (Bryant et al., 2003; Nishith et al.,
2002);
- Self-efficacy may be important in treatment programs (Thompson et al., 2002);
- Emotionally engaged clients recover faster (Gilboa-Schechtman & Foa, 2001).
Reorganization/resolution
This stage focuses on the person becoming a stable functioning individual (Casarez-Levison, 1992). Workers and
victims need to understand the following:
- Recovery does not mean returning to a pre-victimized state (Hagemann, 1992);
- The Transtheoretical Model of Change may be useful in maintaining new, healthier behaviours (Prochaska,
DiClemente & Norcross, 1992);
- Victims may focus on how surviving indicates strength (Hagemann, 1992; Thompson, 2000);
- Any remaining negative coping strategies need to be minimized (Dempsey, 2002);
- Activism is a possible positive long-term outcome of victimization (Hagemann, 1992).
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