The Planning City

2.0 Introduction

This paper reviews some of the key challenges faced by urban planners in Canada and internationally when striving to create sustainable cities. The paper is intended to illustrate some of the issues facing urban planners throughout the world, and methodologies and tools used to address them. While the particular contexts in which these issues play out varies from country to country and city to city, the underlying trends are often quite similar and so are the urban planning responses.

The paper presents a series of examples of planning responses in support of urban sustainability. These responses are not comprehensive, but provide an illustration of the types of actions being taken, and allows for some comparisons across international jurisdictions. While the planning responses are constrained and defined by institutional differences and the extent of available resources, the case studies and examples presented in this paper illustrate the common world view of planners – the need for integration, collaboration and empowerment in order to achieve urban sustainability in the face of tremendous and far-reaching challenges and opportunities.

This paper provides an overview of significant urban issues and the innovative manner in which Canada's urban planners have contributed to urban sustainability. Canada's many contributions to urban planning overseas are also described. Taken together, this paper communicates a number of the accomplishments achieved by Canada's planners with the objective of sharing lessons learned in Canada's urban communities with others around the world.

The discussion is framed in terms of the sustainable development model, which comprises economic, social, and environmental pillars . Connecting and reinforcing the pillars is governance , which we interpret as principles of governing, processes, actions and relationships that facilitate sustainability. These themes are most appropriate because they capture the diversity of modern Canadian planning practice.

About the Canadian Institute of Planners

It is worth noting here the context within which the planning is practiced in Canada. The Canadian Institute of Planners (CIP) sets and administers the benchmarks for excellence in planning across Canada. The Institute has existed since 1919 and has some 6,000 across Canada and abroad. The Institute works closely with Affiliate offices representing planners in each of Canada's provinces and territories. Working with these Affiliates, the Institute sets national standards for training, certification, best practices, and accredits and recognizes university planning degree programs. In addition, CIP's Code of Practice sets out important principles to which CIP, its Affiliates, and its members subscribe.

The relationship between CIP and its Affiliates in many ways mirrors the relationships between Canada federal, provincial, and municipal levels of government. In so doing, it facilitates setting and implementing standardized national membership criteria that enables portability of membership across Canada and with the U.S. and the U.K. This network also provides a strong foundation for the sharing of best practices, continuous learning opportunities, and other benefits. In addition, CIP's growing outreach activities – particularly its capacity-building activities with other planning organizations and governments abroad – are helping to share the Canadian model and experience with others while, at the same time, also drawing lessons from their expertise.

2.1 Sustainable Development

The concept of sustainability was popularized in 1987 with the publication of “Our Common Future” by the World Commission on Environment and Development (the Brundtland Commission). This document articulated essential principles which would lead to a better balance between environment and development. The focus of sustainable development is on the long-term consequences of current actions on three key elements: the natural environment, the social environment, and the economy.

Sustainable development seeks to minimize the negative effects of development while maximizing quality of life and environmental integrity. Decisions made and actions taken in any of these three elements of the sustainable development triangle affect the others. This philosophy of development is captured by the phrase “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (United Nations Commission for Sustainable Development, 1987).

Sustainability also implies a partnership between the public sector, the private sector, and NGOs and civil society generally. As Tyler (2000, 489) notes, “a sustainable approach … is intended to simultaneously incorporate social, environmental and economic values into development decision-making.”

We can also define urban sustainability as the enhanced well-being of cities or urban regions, including integrated economic, ecological, and social components, which will maintain the quality of life for future generations (NRTEE 2003a). Tyler (2000, 489) interprets sustainability as “… concerned with the connections needed between environmental, social and economic interests and with the implied balance of these three interests.” There are recent efforts by many Canadian cities and by the planning profession to adopt more sustainable approaches to urban development. Sustainable urbanization is characterized by forms of development that are higher density, make optimal use of existing services and facilities, minimize pollution, and enhance the integrity of the ecosystem. These objectives are captured and promoted by planning concepts such as New Urbanism and Smart Growth which many would consider as variants and refinements of sustainable development.

2.2 Challenges to Urban Sustainability – Canada

Canada's cities are often criticized as having sprawling, low-density development; over-use of non-renewable natural resources; social inequities, including poverty and economic hardship; and pollution of air, water and soil. The effects are experienced in cities themselves, as well as in adjacent regions and often globally.

Most of Canada's population lives in a network of small, medium and large cities and city-regions. Depending on their size and position in the hierarchy of cities, their influence can be relatively limited or it can extend beyond the host region to the national and international level. The concentration of population and economic activity in cities presents ideal conditions for environmental degradation and a diminished quality of life.

Indeed, many cities in Canada exert a significant impact on the natural environment. Cities and city-regions are not self-sustaining, autonomous or self-reliant entities. Their economies, transportation systems and residents depend upon a cheap and reliable supply of energy sources, food, and raw materials imported from their hinterlands and beyond.

Thus, the environmental impacts of cities extend beyond their political boundaries, which are political constructs. Cities are major consumers of natural resources, and polluters of air, water and soil. These impacts are not limited to the city proper; they are also experienced in adjacent rural regions and natural environments. These impacts, called the ecological footprint, can be far-reaching. This, in turn, can upset the ecological balance in rural and natural areas, thereby causing more damage to the natural environment. Indeed, the environmental damage created by cities can have global consequences – for example, in air and water quality.

Urbanization has a tremendous impact on lands in and adjacent to cities. Urbanization usually requires the conversion of rural or natural lands to urban uses such as housing, offices, transportation and industry. Urban land uses – particularly low-density developments – spill over or sprawl into adjacent rural and natural areas. While larger cities clearly exert a greater impact on the environment than smaller cities, cities of all sizes can have a negative environmental effect.

Economic growth is a driving force behind urbanization. Too often, economic growth takes place at the expense of the natural environment and social equity. The short-term benefits of economic activity seem more important than long-term impacts on the natural and built environments. The benefits of economic growth are rarely equally distributed among the residents in these cities. The externalities (or costs) of economic activity are rarely fully captured. Unhealthy economic and social dependencies are created in adjacent rural municipalities that supply cities with resources, goods and services.

It is expensive to provide the services, amenities and infrastructure required because of economic and population growth. Quite often, this growth occurs quickly and requires a prompt response from governments. Consequently, demand for services often exceeds supply of resources. The proper maintenance and replacement of existing services and infrastructure is a major challenge for Canada's cities, often more significant and worrisome than the construction of new infrastructure.

This compounds the challenges faced by all residents of cities, in particular disenfranchised people. Social issues are multifaceted and complex in Canada's cities. There are often extreme (and widening) gaps between rich and poor, especially in large cities. Many Canadian cities have a sizable underclass of people who are poor, sick, unemployed or exploited. They often live in substandard housing in unhealthy, unsafe and under-serviced areas.

Finally, we turn to the very real issue of governance . Canadian cities may also lack the institutional capacity required to govern effectively – the trained professionals, political structures, departments or technical skills required to plan and manage urbanization processes. Sustainability challenges transcend jurisdictional boundaries. However, municipal efforts are adversely affected by a lack of regional planning and region-based government. Urban planning in Canada is primarily a municipal government responsibility carried out under powers delegated by the provincial government. In the Canadian constitutional system, municipalities are “creatures of the provinces” – they exist by provincial fiat. Provincial governments establish legislation, such as the Planning Act or Municipal Act, which regulates and guides municipal planning decisions. Each province and territory has its own planning legislation. However, municipal governments generally set the policy context for local land use planning and development to occur, ensuring conformity with provincial policies and legislation.

Fiscal constraints are very real obstacles. Municipal governments in Canada have limited own-source revenues and decreased fiscal transfers from senior government. Canadian cities struggle to cope and survive in the face of rapid growth, or even more worrisome, decline. This situation is particularly acute when resources are severely constrained because of downloading of service delivery responsibilities from senior governments.

Canada's cities, then, are complex places. They are difficult to plan and to manage. They are often places of social, economic and environmental extremes. They may be fascinating, but they are not always sustainable places. However, it is not growth per se, but the manner in which growth is managed that creates problems. For many observers of urbanization, the future viability and prosperity of Canadian cities depends on sustainable development and sustainable forms of urbanization.

2.3 Challenges to Urban Sustainability – International

Canadian urban planners strive to achieve a balance among the three pillars of sustainability – economic, environmental and social – when creating and implementing urban plans. This section identifies issues commonly faced when planning in international settings. The economic, environmental and social issues and the examples of urban planning responses to these draw on experiences in 10 decidedly different countries located in five continents: U.S.A., U.K., New Zealand, Australia, Trinidad & Tobago, Cuba, Bangladesh, Uganda, South Africa and China.

The economic, environmental, and social issues presented in this section are not meant to be exhaustive, but rather illustrative of the key issues facing cities and urban regions, enabling comparison across international jurisdictions. These issues are driven by global trends that cut across geographic, cultural and class boundaries. These are relevant to rich and poor countries alike, and shape the role of planners in these countries. Each of these trends poses both tremendous challenges and represents possible opportunities for positive transformation. The following are five examples of these underlying trends:

Transformation of Human Settlements through Urbanization : By the end of this decade, more than half of the world's population will live in cities. Urban growth is most dramatic in developing countries. W hile developed countries will continue to see continued concentration of their population in urban areas, the overwhelming majority of p opulation growth in developing countries will become absorbed by rapidly growing urban areas.

Economic, Political and Cultural Globalization : The world's nation states continue to grow increasingly interdependent at the level of their economies, financial systems, businesses, cultures and communication. This holds true for cities and urban regions – which are increasingly connected to global economic and cultural networks, rather than to their geographic neighbours.

New Information, Communication and Environmental Technologies: T echnological innovation is driving change in a wide range of fields. Computer software, information and communication technologies, alternative energy, and the bio-medical sector are all having far reaching impacts on the structure of local economies, levels of productivity and development, and the role and function of political democracy.

Increased Citizen and Consumer Awareness & Empowerment : The international diffusion of information technologies is changing the balance of power among governments, corporations, and non-governmental organizations. These technologies are helping us to obtain, share, and act on information quickly; build international networks; monitor changes; and hold governments and corporations accountable for their actions. Global grassroots movements are increasingly able to serve as a counter-force to economic globalization, while ethically-conscious consumers are influencing a shift towards triple-bottom-line accounting and corporate social responsibility.

Decentralization of Central Government Responsibility and Resources: Driven as much by fiscal austerity, as a desire for more accountable and effective service delivery, central governments in developing and developed countries are decentralizing service requirements to local authorities, civil society organizations and the private sector.

2.4 Summary

It is interesting to note that Canadian and many international cities share common concerns and face similar challenges. Cities in both settings must contend with the local impacts of national and global economic change. Urbanization, represented by urban sprawl and its attendant problems, dominates the urban agenda in Canada and many nations. While urban sprawl appears manageable in the Canadian context, this is not always the case in many other nations where exponential rates of population growth have created uncontrollable forms of urbanization.

Institutional capacity is a concern in both contexts, although of a different order of magnitude. While Canadian cities benefit from institutional capacity and stability, yet lack sufficient resources, many international cities operate in turbulent decision-making environments where the lack of resources compounds an already complicated situation. This is especially apparent in areas such as public health and capacity-building.

The next three sections of this paper explore how Canadian and international cities are attempting to create sustainable urban environments. In planning theory and practice, economy, society and environment are inextricably linked. For the sake of simplicity and efficiency in organization of the paper, these three pillars of sustainable development are treated individually. Governance – a cross-cutting element – is discussed in the context of our review of the three sustainability pillars.

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