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The Planning City
4.0 Social Sustainability
This section begins with the definition of several concepts central to social sustainability then outlines the major social trends in Canada and their implications for urban planning. Next it identifies key urban social issues and finally describes Canadian urban planning practice responses to these issues. This section concludes by summarizing key areas of planning innovation in planning for social sustainability.
4.1 The Canadian Experience
4.1.1 The General Context
Social sustainability emerged as a fundamental component of sustainability with the recognition that environmental sustainability was unattainable without accompanying social justice. Urban social sustainability is a process of urban development, supported by policies and institutions that ensure harmonious social relations, enhance social integration and improve living conditions for all groups (Enyedi 2002; Stren & Polèse 2000). A central concept within the social pillar of sustainability is equity. Equity refers to the redistribution of resources as well as equal access to the means by which to fulfill basic human needs, including housing, employment, public facilities and services.
In the past, urban planning policies, processes and other practices assumed a single public interest. In this way, they did not always address the full spectrum of human needs nor consider the social, economic and political barriers facing individuals and groups. Planning for a single “public interest” or for the “average” citizen results in policies and programs that can sometimes exclude vulnerable groups from fully participating in, and benefiting from, society. Many social groups have unique needs. Disadvantaged groups often lack the social, political and economic resources to fulfill or advocate for their needs.
In a socially sustainable approach to urban development, planning organizations facilitate the participation of all social groups in identifying and addressing social issues and needs. A socially inclusive society integrates all of its members into the civic, social, and economic life of society.
4.1.2 Canadian Urban Social Trends
Canadian society has experienced tremendous transformation over the past century. These changes have had direct and indirect effects on urban development, in terms of the needs and values of urban residents, the information required for policy development, the processes used in policy development and plan implementation, and the criteria by which outcomes are assessed.
Canada has a highly urbanized population. In 2001, approximately 80% of Canadians lived in an urban area (10,000 people or more), with just over 64% of people living in Canada's 27 census metropolitan areas (CMAs). Urban growth has been highest in four areas, which account for 51% of the national population: 1) British Columbia's lower mainland; 2) the extended Golden Horseshoe in southern Ontario; 3) the Calgary-Edmonton corridor; and 4) the Montreal and adjacent region. Growing manufacturing and service-based economies coupled with high immigrant settlement account for most urban growth, with the exception of Alberta's healthy oil industry (Statistics Canada 2002).
Canada's demographic profile can be described by several trends. As a result of a combination of Canada's spectacular post-war “baby-boom” cohort, increasing life expectancy, and low fertility rates, Canada has an aging population. The median age is rising due to the increasing proportion of residents over 65, which by 2010 is expected to be around 20%. Population growth rates are declining, but have been offset somewhat by high rates of immigration (Bourne 2000; Bourne and Rose 2001).
Other significant trends include the decreasing size and dynamic nature of households, the steady feminization of the work force and the increasing ethno-cultural diversity of Canada's largest cities. The rising income gap between the highest and lowest income groups is also of great concern (Hunsley 1999; Scott et al. 2000; Lee 2000).
Between cities across the country, there are some variations in social conditions. Higher rates of poverty are experienced in cities in Quebec, and centrally located cities of CMAs. Western and northern cities host higher proportions of Aboriginal peoples and large cities, particularly Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver have the highest numbers of immigrants and refugees.
Within Canadian cities, differences occur between inner city, inner and outer suburbs, in what is sometimes referred to as the “donut” effect. In general, Canadian inner cities have experienced lower growth, an under-representation of youth, over-representation of the elderly, increasing numbers of single person households, and generally higher proportions of immigrant communities. Inner suburbs are also aging communities, while the outer suburbs generally experience the greatest influx of young families (Bourne 2000; Bourne et al., 2001; Statistics Canada, 2002).
Social trends hold many implications for urban planning. Groups such as the female labour force, the growing proportion of elderly, aboriginal populations and recent immigrants require city governments to consider the full spectrum of human needs. Planning for these needs must address services (e.g., child care, health services, transit), infrastructure (e.g., care facilities, institutional and housing needs) and design (e.g., accessible built environments).
Social demographics and social issues are important considerations in designing solutions for more traditional urban planning issues such as land use intensification, subdivision planning, downtown revitalization and transportation planning. For example, planning for intensification must take into account the effects of decreasing household size on efforts to increase residential densities; downtown revitalization planners must consider the impact of economic revitalization on the affordable housing stock in core areas.
4.1.3 Key Canadian Social Issues
Traditional urban planning has been physically focused, primarily addressing land use, transportation and physical infrastructure. In the past, social issues were relegated to the more orthodox social professions like health, education, and social work. Over the past half century, this separation between the physical and social issues has become increasingly blurred.
There has been a slow but steady progression towards the integration of the two areas such that it is now common for social planners to consider land use and other physical aspects of planning in their work, and for more physically oriented planners to address social issues. Six issues are examined below: low income (affordable housing and homelessness), accessibility, public safety, the elderly, immigrants and aboriginal peoples .
Low Income
The growing income gap between the most and least wealthy sectors in society has been a growing concern in Canada over the past decade. De-industrialization, globalization, and economic restructuring coupled with public sector reform have contributed to profound social and economic shifts in Canadian society. These factors have resulted in the increased exclusion of individuals and families from resources and supports.
Several groups are experiencing high rates of poverty, particularly Aboriginal peoples, recent immigrants, visible minorities, people with disabilities, youth and children, elderly women, single parent families and unattached individuals (Lee 2000). This trend puts these vulnerable groups at high risk of further marginalization. Increases in the spatial concentration of poverty in neighbourhoods are also of concern when it leads to isolation and exclusion (Federation of Canadian Municipalities and Arundel, 2003). Homelessness and affordable housing are two critical urban planning issues in the maintenance and enhancement of social sustainability.
Affordable Housing
Affordable housing in Canada has been a significant concern in most municipalities over the past two decades. During the 1990s, the federal government devolved its housing responsibility to the provinces, which, in many cases, further devolved social housing to the municipal level. Affordable housing advocates observed that since the late 1990s, affordable rental stock supply has not kept up with the demand. The private market is not able to accommodate the needs of low income households, in part, because household incomes have not increased at the same rate as rent increases. Of particular concern has been the growing number of households who spend more than 50% of income on housing, the majority of which are families with children, senior citizens and aboriginal peoples (Federation of Canadian Municipalities 2000). As an important dimension of poverty alleviation, the issue remains critical as the income gap within Canadian society grows.
Homelessness
Since the 1980s, an increasing number of individuals and families have been unable to adequately fulfill their housing needs resulting in four categories of people: those without shelter, those temporarily housed with friends or family, those at risk of becoming houseless, and those in inadequate or substandard housing conditions (Springer 2000). Estimating numbers of homeless is always a difficult task; however, in the late 1990s most cities reported increasing numbers of people using emergency shelters. In some cases usage rates doubled over a five-year period (Hulchanski n.d.).
Accessibility
Issues related to accessibility affect a wide spectrum in society. In the built environment, these issues include barriers to mobility, access to sites and buildings and design features appropriate to all people. Accessibility issues primarily concern the elderly, people with disabilities and people in rehabilitation. They have been supported by architects, interior designers, health and social services representatives, urban planners and gerontologists. The traditional approach to design has been to cater to a specification that is “average” or conducive in concordance to a specific population. Advocates of accessibility point out that at one time or another, all people have some aspect of their mobility or their senses impaired or limited. Therefore, all people benefit from an accessible society, not only those with limited mobility.
Public Safety
Safety is another important urban social issue. While traditionally safety has been viewed as an issue concerning the protection of women and children from violence, safety and perceptions of safety are important to high quality of life for all. In its broadest terms, the enhancement of safety is used in reference to efforts to decrease injury and increase behaviours that improve health (Safer Calgary 2000).
Elderly
Canada has an aging population. Some planning issues related to the elderly relate to issues such as accessibility and safety, as outlined above. Additional issues of concern to the elderly include access to services such as transportation, health, recreation and social services that help to maintain high levels of quality of life throughout the aging process. Many seniors prefer to “age-in-place” which requires access to services from their original places of residence. Additional services will also require the development of physical infrastructure, such as care facilities and supported housing (City of Toronto 1999).
Immigrants
Canada's largest metropolitan regions are cosmopolitan communities. In 2001, almost one-fifth (18%) of Canadian were foreign born. Most live in metropolitan areas, particularly those who arrived during the 1990s. Nearly three-quarters (73%) of these recent immigrants settled in three areas: Toronto, Vancouver and Montreal (Statistics Canada 2003b).
There is great diversity in the ethno-cultural profile of Canadian cities, due to a variety of settlement patterns. However, in general, Canada's largest cities have increasing populations of visible minorities from a very diverse range of ethnic origins. Many recent immigrants face difficulties in finding affordable housing and making the transition to economic and social integration. Settlement and support services are needed to help ease this transition period.
Aboriginal Peoples
Canada's Aboriginal population is increasingly urban, especially in western cities like Winnipeg, Edmonton, Saskatoon, Regina and Vancouver. Almost one half (49%) of aboriginal peoples live in cities. It is a young population, with more than half of its members less than 23.5 years old (Statistics Canada, 2003a). Due to the combination of many factors such as high poverty rates, low education levels, cultural differences and discrimination, many Aboriginal households experience significant barriers to fulfilling some of their basic needs such as employment and affordable housing.
4.1.4 Urban Planning Responses
Innovation in planning for social issues takes place in the public, private and civil society sectors. Planning in the public sector is highly influential because it sets the regulatory and incentive frameworks under which private and civil society actors operate. However, the private and civil society sectors have also made substantial contributions through the development of new planning concepts, tools and processes. New governance models encourage the creation of inter-sectoral strategic alliances and partnerships that demonstrate the positive impacts from applying combined resources.
Planners have several mechanisms through which to address social issues in planning. These include:
- Consultative processes to assess and synthesize community goals and values (e.g., community visioning).
- Use of research, community, expert or advisory committee consultation in the definitions of problems and solutions.
- Use of policy development and implementation tools (both regulations and incentives) to address identified problems.
- Monitoring and evaluation to track and assess community outcomes.
This section describes case examples of urban planning responses to social issues, highlighting recent innovative practices.
Responses to Affordable Housing
Affordable housing needs are currently being addressed at federal, provincial and municipal levels through a variety of means. One approach has been to examine various alternatives to expanding the stock of affordable housing (e.g., the Grow Home) (Friedman 2001).
One initiative, Affordability and Choice Today (ACT), is funded federally and implemented locally. The multi-pronged approach of ACT addresses four issues related to providing more affordable housing:
- Streamlining approvals processes;
- Facilitating new forms of housing (e.g., secondary suites, garden suites, multi-generational housing, and rooming housing;
- Regulatory and incentive programs to promote infill, intensification and conversion; and
- Alternative land and site development standards (Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation et al. 2004).
Kingston, Ontario . After the mid-1990s, the province of Ontario developed the Consolidated Municipal Service Manager model through which to deliver human services, including the devolved social housing programs and services in 2000. Affordable housing became a critical issue in Kingston as vacancy rates began to fall at the turn of the century, dropping to 0.9% in 2002. As the local service manager, the Housing Division at the City of Kingston is currently participating in the federal Community Rental Housing Program to create new housing units, while at the same time, developing an affordable housing strategy that addresses property management, housing services, shelter and land use development (City of Kingston 2004).
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan . Saskatoon Housing Initiatives Partnership (SHIP) is a non-profit organization that facilitates the development of affordable housing. Working in partnership with the City of Saskatoon, SHIP facilitates community input, provides technical assistance, researches alternative financing and incentives for housing construction, facilitates networking among housing providers, and participates in public education and advocacy for affordable housing (Saskatoon Housing Initiative Partnership 2004).
Regina, Saskatchewan . The City of Regina recently used design charrettes to develop affordable housing design strategies. The design charrette is a tool used in architectural and planning education, as a process of bringing together a group of people for a short but intense workshop, to develop design ideas. The Regina Affordable Sustainable Housing Charrette brought together technical experts, community and partner organization representatives to develop affordable housing design ideas that suit economic, social and environmental goals.
Montréal, Québec. The City of Montréal is probably doing more in social housing than any municipality in Canada. The federal and provincial governments are reinvesting in social and community housing. Between July 2003 and June 2004, 1,700 housing units will have been produced in regions most affected by the need of social housing: Gatineau, Montréal, Québec, Laval, Lévis and Longueuil, with funding from two programs: AccèsLogis Québec and Logement abordable Québec. The provincial announced in February the 2004 emergency help program for households that could become homeless coming July 1st. The government will provide 3,700 emergency rent supplements – 1,200 more than last year.
Projects have to be initiated by cooperatives, non-profit organizations and the Office municipal d'habitation de Montréal to get funding. Propositions can involve building new housing units, rehabilitate existing housing units or transform non-residential buildings into housing. Target groups are unattached individuals, families, dependent seniors and people with special needs.
The community and social housing projects are often located to create social and economic vitality to decline neighbourhoods; some projects are built in vacant industrial buildings. The projects aim to revitalize communities, increase socio-economic mixed. Plans for new housing are respectful of the urban environment, architecture and urban planning regulations.
Responses to Homelessness
Like affordable housing, responses to homelessness have been supported by federal, provincial and local efforts, supplemented by non-profit organizations, private sector organizations and First Nations communities.
Halifax, Nova Scotia. In Halifax, the Community Action Plan On Homelessness (CAH) addresses issues surrounding absolute and at risk homelessness. The plan draws on research, community consultations and the voices of youth, aboriginals, and other visible minorities. The CAH advances projects through funding from the Supporting Communities Partnership Initiative (SCPI), a National Initiative on Homelessness, funded by Human Resource Development Canada.
The objectives of the CAP are to: increase supports; identify gaps and continuums of supports for homeless and at risk groups. The objectives of the CAP include affordable housing and ensuring that at risk populations have access to resources and supports that improve their quality of life. The CAH aims to prevent at risk groups from falling into homelessness and to increase community awareness across all domains of the challenges confronting individuals in accessing safe and affordable housing. In keeping with the CAP goals the RMH seeks to increase partnerships and address policy issues.
Victoria, British Columbia . One tool of the City of Victoria's Homelessness initiative has been the Assets and Gaps Inventory. This provides a snapshot assessment of the programs and services of offered by the various organizations and agencies serving the homeless population. In recognition of the dynamic nature of the needs and concerns of this population, the inventory has helped the initiative to quickly identify strengths and weaknesses of the city's position (City of Victoria 2004).
Toronto, Ontario . An important development in efforts to address social issues such as homelessness, have been efforts to take a holistic, integrative approach to addressing the issue. The City of Toronto's Housing and Homelessness report cards, first released in 2000 by the Homelessness Action Task Force illustrates one such example. These annual report cards address affordable housing and homelessness together. This approach effectively examines many root causes of homelessness, one of which is the severe lack of affordable housing in the City of Toronto. The approach includes: 1) affordability supports, such as rent supplements and income security; 2) housing infrastructure initiatives, such as the creation of new affordable housing units; and 3) services and support for homeless or population at risk of homelessness, such as outreach services, housing support services, drop-in services, prevention and shelter services, health and mental health, awareness and education programs for parks, recreation and library services (City of Toronto 2003).
Responses to Accessibility
There are four areas in which responses to accessibility have emerged. The concept of Universal Design underlies most efforts. Accessibility plans are an emerging tool to assist municipalities to co-ordinate efforts. Advisory committees play a key role in this planning and non-governmental organizations are involved in service delivery.
Universal Design. The concept of Universal Design sets out principles for the design of products, communication and built environments to suit to a population with a range of capabilities. While the practice of Universal Design is gradually gaining more widespread acceptance, a recent study by the Canadian Mortgage and Housing Corporation (Gullison 2004) notes shortcomings in current state of knowledge of human variables and design guidelines. The study recommends further development in the area of qualitative and quantitative research, best practices, models, supported by greater leadership and coordination.
Accessibility Plans. In 2001, the province of Ontario passed the Ontarians with Disabilities Act. This act requires municipalities to prepare an annual accessibility plan. The plan must identify community barriers to accessibility, develop an inventory of policies and programs in place to address accessibility and outline future plans to identify, remove and prevent barriers.
Advisory Committees. Ontario legislation requires that all municipalities consult with persons with disabilities in the community. For municipalities with populations over 10,000, the municipality must create an advisory committee, half of whose members must be persons with disabilities, to assist the municipality to develop, implement, monitor and evaluate the plan. Other municipalities such as the City of Winnipeg also use advisory committees to guide municipal council on accessibility policy and program matters.
Windsor, Ontario. The Windsor Advisory Committee on Disability Issues has functioned as a standing committee of council since 1981. The recent provincial legislation on accessibility further supports the committee's past activities. Under the new legislation, the committee will examine and address the physical, architectural, informational, communications, policy, procedure and practice barriers to accessibility in the municipality (Dillon Consulting and The Corporation of the City of Windsor 2003; Windsor Accessibility Advisory Committee 2003).
A fourth area in which these issues are addressed has been through the development of non-governmental organizations focusing on accessibility. Unlike previous efforts that focused more on planning, accessibility NGOs implement programs and services to enhance urban accessibility.
Calgary, Alberta . Access Calgary is an incorporated non-profit organization which provides transportation services for those who are unable to use rapid transit trains and transit buses. The organization provides shared, door-to-door service integrating the services of Calgary Handi-bus and the Special Needs taxi program (Access Calgary 2004).
Responses to Public Safety
Four approaches stand out in recent Canadian municipal practices addressing safety: 1) consultative processes such as advisory committees, task forces or working groups; 2) safe city guidelines, policies in community master or official plans, or specific safety policy plans; 3) the use of an assessment tool called the safety audit; and 4) monitoring through safety indicators
Toronto's Safe City Committee. This advisory citizen-based advisory group to Toronto's municipal government came together in the early 1980s as a result of a partnership of local politicians, bureaucrats and grassroots activists in response to serial rapist activity. The committee worked with municipal staff, the local transit authority, city police services and community-based organizations on a number of initiatives such as improving the safety of public places like transit stops and parks, changing the development approval review process to include safety criteria, and public education campaigns (Metropolitan Action Committee on Violence Against Women and Children 2004)
Safety Audit . The Safety Audit has been a popular tool for assessing neighbourhood safety in recent years. A safety audit is conducted by a small number of people in a neighbourhood, facility or site of concern. The audit is often carried out at night, in order to identify features and sites that are either conducive to crime or to perceptions of danger. Identified problems are then addressed through changes to lighting, landscaping, street and site design, guidelines, regulations, policies or review processes.
Reponses to the Aging Population
Some issues related to older persons, such as accessibility and safety, are similar to other groups. As such, initiatives described above include these concerns. In other areas, such as affordable housing, the specific requirements of seniors differ from other people with the same general need.
Many municipal efforts to address the particular needs and concerns of seniors have involved task forces or research projects to identify how seniors understand important issues and to seek their assistance in developing strategies. A second area of municipal activity has been in supportive housing. Local governments play an important goal in three areas: 1) establishing policy and planning frameworks for supportive housing 2) developing pedestrian-based barrier-free public works infrastructure, and 3) providing incentives for supportive housing development (Government of British Columbia 1999).
Calgary, Alberta . The Elder Friendly Communities Project was a collaborative project involving practitioners and academics from local government, social work and health care. The project used a participatory research approach to ensure that the perspectives of seniors were central to the research process. Through four case study communities, the project assessed the assets, capacities and needs of seniors and their families (Austin et al. 2001).
Richmond, British Columbia . In consultation with the City's Seniors' Advisory Council, representatives of the construction industry, health care representatives and social housing organizations, the City of Richmond developed the Affordable Seniors' Supportive Housing Design Guidelines (City of Richmond 2002).
The guidelines provide direction in eight areas: neighbourhood design, building form, provisions for accessibility, design features to support aging in place, private space, common areas and amenities, safety features and supports features.
Responses to Ethno-Cultural Diversity
Municipal responses to the ethno-cultural diversity brought about by immigration are varied. Basic human services such as employment, training and health services are among the most immediate needs of immigrants. Affordable housing is another critical issue addressed above. In most cases, urban planning responses to municipal ethno-cultural diversity have taken place on an ad hoc basis. In response to land use conflict or policy needs, some municipalities have begun to make policy and implementation changes in the areas such as places of worship and retail practices. In a few notable exceptions, municipalities are taking a proactive stance to the ethno-cultural diversity.
Vancouver, British Columbia. Vancouver's CityPlan Community Visions provides a good case example of a proactive approach to ethno-cultural diversity. In its neighbourhood visioning process, the City of Vancouver recognized up front that they needed to address ethno-cultural and linguistic diversity in their outreach and communications strategies. In ethno-culturally diverse neighbourhoods, the city identified key ethnic groups with high proportions of neighbourhood residents (e.g., Cantonese and Punjabi speakers). The city then employed outreach workers, used ethno-cultural media to publicize events, translated surveys, educational and communication materials, and used translation services for community meetings and workshops. These efforts helped to facilitate the participation of recent immigrants in the community visioning process (Lee 2002).
Responses to Aboriginal Communities
Municipal responses to their aboriginal communities vary with the proportion and characteristics of the urban Aboriginal population. Affordable housing and homelessness are important issues that Aboriginal communities share with other Canadian urban social groups. Many municipal initiatives address Aboriginal concerns in conjunction with planning for neighbourhood revitalization and related community development initiatives. Aboriginal non-governmental organizations play key partnership roles in these planning efforts.
Winnipeg, Manitoba. Winnipeg's Municipal Aboriginal Pathways is part of the city's large urban development strategy within the Plan Winnipeg 2020 Vision. Facing slow growth, labour skills shortage and out-migration, the city is looking to its Aboriginal population as a key source of future growth and increased potential. While the project is in its initial stages, it maps out a strategy that includes employment, safety, economic development, quality of life, outreach and education. These initiatives will work in partnership with existing Aboriginal networks, organizations and programs (City of Winnipeg 2003).
4.2 Social Issues – International
4.2.1 The International Experience
Urban social sustainability involves responding to the polarizing and marginalizing effects of globalization at the levels of community, family and individuals. OECD countries are addressing these challenges through targeted neighbourhood regeneration schemes, invigorating public spaces, and strengthening social cohesion. For their part, the conditions for social cohesion, community identity and civic engagement remain relatively high in many developing countries.
This is due in part to the historic absence of the State from the day-to-day lives of families and communities. Instead, the primary challenge is the incidence of absolute deprivation amongst the urban poor.
4.2.2 International Social Trends
The social consequences of rapid urbanization, globalization, economic growth, income inequality and environmental degradation are being felt in cities in both the North and South. Urban populations are feeling increasingly vulnerable to public health scares and infectious disease, crime and violence. The response is increased security, gated communities, and social polarization. A lack of affordable land and housing and access to formal employment further marginalize the urban poor.
Social exclusion and poverty is concentrated in either squatter settlements located on the periphery of cities or in urban slums located in established inner-city residential communities. These communities are characterized by the exclusion of residents from municipal decision making and policy development; under-servicing in areas such as solid waste management, water supply and sanitation, and relative under-investment by the public sector in physical and social infrastructure; limited access to social and community services; barriers to income generation due to inability to access formal sources of financing, and the presence of policies and regulations that restrict a variety of forms of micro-enterprise; and a disproportionate impact from poor environmental quality, and risks to property and life from environmental hazards.
In sub-Saharan Africa, in particular, no discussion of future urbanization can be complete without reference to the problems posed by HIV/AIDS. The alarmingly high levels of infection and the grim decline in life expectancy that is now occurring poses unprecedented questions about how to manage urban change.
4.2.3 Urban Planning Responses
An important tradition in urban planning is the concern for public health and the social well-being of the urban poor. The following six examples from cities in the North and South illustrate a broad range of urban planning tools being applied to address social exclusion and poverty in urban areas.
Liverpool, U.K.: Neighborhood Revitalization and Local Neighborhood Renewal Strategy
Social exclusion and dislocation continue to be features of the socio-economy of this U.K. city. Neighborhood renewal strategies are piloting new ways of engaging local communities. Planning is responding to these issues by prioritizing and targeting redevelopment needs of communities.
City improvement districts are emerging to supplement the need for topping up services that the city cannot deliver. In terms of housing, key planning concerns focus on rising vacancy rates, falling property rates and, poor housing stock conditions (Liverpool Housing Strategy, 2002).
In the case of Liverpool, the introduction of a national Public Service Agreement targeted for decent homes requires all local authorities to reduce the number of households living in substandard social housing by at least one-third between 2001 and 2004. These standards must be achieved by 2010.
Therefore, priorities were identified as: carrying out repairs and improvements to all council owned homes throughout the city; clearance of unsustainable council homes; provision and site development for rent and sale; provision of stock and transfer for tenants; and implementing a Liverpool Asset Management Project to track the popularity and condition of social housing stock to inform future investment. Additionally, the city established a minority housing strategy, accommodation strategy for older people, and a strategy to address homelessness. Each of these initiatives is supported by local strategic partnerships and facilitates open forums for tenants in area forums.
South Africa: Integrated Development Planning
Urban planning during the era of Apartheid fragmented the urban landscape in terms of infrastructure, service delivery, municipal authority and civil society. New approaches to urban planning are now addressing the tensions between the established infrastructure and new forms of urban management and development. Distinctions were prevalent in the realm of service delivery. Housing, health, education, and infrastructure (water, transport, and electricity) did not work in concert with one another; each distinct service was disconnected from existing development. Little consideration was paid to integrated development and the links between urban development and socio-economic realities.
The Urban Development Framework (UDF) of South Africa proposes an integrated planning and implementation framework for urban development through four programs:
- Integrating the city, through integrated development planning
- Improving housing and infrastructure
- Promoting urban economic development which builds on local resources
- Creating institutions for delivery, which emphasize inter-sectoral collaboration and the transformation of the public sector
The Integrated Development Plan (IDP) is a primary mechanism for ensuring institutional reform, budgetary alignment and accountability to development targets. The IDP is a tool that laterally instills a local government and urban development practice that is multi-sectoral and collaborative to ensure that all revenue and budget, service delivery requirements and governance practices are collaborative and are aligned with public participation processes. Horizontally, the IDP sets out the planning perimeters for national, provincial and local spheres of government.
An IDP is a process through which a municipality can establish a development plan for the short, medium and long term. It enables a municipality to: (i) assess the current reality in the municipal area, including economic, social and environmental trends, available resources, skills and capacities; (ii) assess the varied needs of the community and different interest groups; (iii) prioritize these needs in order of urgency, importance, and constitutional and legislative imperatives; (iv) establish frameworks and set goals to meet these needs; (v) devise strategies to achieve the goals within specific time frames; (vi) develop and implement projects and programs to achieve key objectives; (vii) establish targets and monitoring tools/instruments to measure impact and performance; (viii) budget effectively with limited resources and meet strategic objectives; and (ix) regularly monitor and adapt the development programs based on the underlying development framework and development indicators (Parnell and Pieterse, 1999).
Uganda: Planning for HIV/AIDS
In November 2000, 26 Mayors in Uganda signed a Declaration and made a public commitment to research solutions to HIV/AIDS relevant to local needs and realities. They launched a national chapter of the Alliance of Mayors and Municipal Leaders on HIV/AIDS in Africa. An action plan was developed and various start up activities initiated in a number of municipalities, including Jinja. Community-based action was considered critical to the action plan. The involvement of local government is essential because national HIV/AIDS policies cannot be fully implemented from the centre.
HIV/AIDS requires a revision of planning practice that is considerate of issues such as health care, radical shifts in demographics, a restructured labor force, the changing nature of the family and household structure, flexible housing, and planning for sympathetic and educational environments.
In terms of housing for people living with HIV/AIDS, planners have responded with various programs for revitalizing old housing structures and designing “loose-fit” buildings for future adaptation. Ongoing community needs analysis as well as the utilization of GIS application to trace the spread of HIV/AIDS (i.e., chronopleth techniques showing rates of incidence per administrative district) are built into the planning process and projects.
Broader innovations include reducing distances between work and home, creating safer streets for women traveling to and from work, and building structures with limited requirements for ongoing maintenance, and policies and programs, which address the broader social and economic development implications of the epidemic.
Bangladesh: Building Social Cohesion in Informal Settlements
Bangladesh is a case that characterizes many of the issues, contradictions and problems of urban centers in the South. Planning approaches for the targeted population of the urban poor include urban resettlement, ‘formalizing' informal settlements, increasing accessibility and social inclusion. These schemes are based on the principles of accepting that informal settlements are here to stay, and recognizing that relocation schemes destroy the social fabric and livelihood networks and strategies that have evolved over many generations.
Planning approaches formulate and enforce controls and regulations which encourage redevelopment that is responsive to community needs and conducive to the process of a viable environment. They also involve preparing a register of buildings of architectural, historic, religious and cultural interest to assure their continued use and maintenance through adaptive use.
Equally important is the identification of well-located land parcels across the city and preparation of these for future informal settlement. Preparation includes the provision of large landscaped spaces for cultural community facilities; peripheral green space for livestock; a hardened primary circulation space allowing for emergency access and delivery vehicles; and a network of utility services paralleling the major routes and connecting the squares (Dewar 2002). Planning according to locally specific and culturally relevant and responsive guidelines is the best criterion for success and local buy-in.
Trinidad: Addressing Poverty & Social Development
East Port of Spain is a densely populated hillside area located within the City of Port of Spain, characterized by low incomes, unauthorized and unplanned development, squatting on State and Municipal Corporation lands, inadequate physical and social infrastructure, vulnerability to land slippage and flooding, and high incidences of youth crime and unemployment. While the precise incidence of HIV/AIDS in the area is not known, estimates provided by the City's Public Health Department indicate that Trinidad has the 17 th highest incidence in the world. These characteristics reflect the area's status as one of the most socio-economically and physically marginalized communities in the country.
The Government of Trinidad and the City of Port of Spain initiated a community planning process in 1999 intended to “open up” the planning process to affected communities, and increase the integration and coordination of similar or complimentary programs being carried out by community organizations, government agencies and other sectors. Professionals and community leaders were trained to support more inclusive planning processes. Community representatives were provided a greater understanding of the planning process, while professionals were sensitized to community realities and the legitimacy of community input in the planning process.
In November 2003, a three-year Integrated Urban Community Planning & Development (IUCPD) Project was initiated to address the need for the planned implementation of social and physical infrastructure projects. The project is demonstrating and testing a methodology for replication in other communities. Three key aspects of this methodology are the participation of a broad range of stakeholders in plan formulation, integration of both physical and social development priorities into municipal development plans, and the linkages between plan formulation and plan implementation.
Australia: Guiding New Developments for a More Sustainable Urban Future
The Livable Neighbourhoods plan is an implementation tool for the sustainability objectives of the National Australian State Planning Strategy and sets out to integrate and manage the city's future development plans towards a safe, inclusive and culturally vibrant city. Planning responses are aimed at encouraging mixed-use and dense urban developments where goods, employment and services are located locally.
Neighbourhoods are places in which one can walk from home to work to leisure activities. Support is given to create public spaces that are for multi-use and for multiple identities to converge thereby making possible a greater sense of community and identity. This urban fabric increases personal safety, the building of local social capital and greater interaction between citizens – a better quality of living (Armstrong 2002).
Additionally, development-planning furthers sustainability goals by limiting the use of vehicular transportation, global warming, oil dependence, physical inactivity and increasing costs of private transport. Pedestrian Initiatives in the City of Perth have attempted to promote a shift in the cultural logic of communities such that people are educated towards the benefits of walking or “traveling smart” (Prince 2002). Street networks are planned where buildings face the street to increase personal security and activity. A Metropolitan Region Pedestrian Strategy, advisory committee and National Pedestrian Council support this promotional agenda.
4.3 Summary
Urban planners in both OECD and developing countries seem to rely on a similar set of approaches in responding to social sustainability. The roles of public consultation and community engagement are crucial in this respect. To be effective, communities must take ownership of the planning processes that are intended to solve local problems. Urban planners are also developing methodologies that effectively connect economic and physical development to social priorities, such as HIV/AIDS.
Planners in both settings concentrate on building capacity at the community level, and on building community and sense of place. The objective in both cases is achieving a healthy community in all its permutations. Cities in Canada and in many other nations are socially complex, with diverse publics that have different needs and expectations. Clearly, it will be necessary to design and deliver programs and policies that acknowledge and address social diversity.
Social sustainability efforts are jeopardized in both settings by increasing rates of infection from serious disease. Basic needs must be met before community development planning is attempted. However, there are many examples of innovation by planners and community development specialists that offer considerable hope for community vitality. The examples cited in this section demonstrate that social issues can be addressed through planning interventions. Further, these interventions can have multiple spin-offs: they can positively address economic and environmental issues. For example, interventions that improve the quality of life for Aboriginals or senior citizens, such as improved housing, stimulate economic activity and can also improve the urban environment if brownfield sites are redeveloped. A healthier community reduces demands on the public health care system and can improve the productivity of a local economy.