National
Recovery Strategy
For
the
North
Pacific Right Whale
Eubalaena japonica
in
Pacific
Canadian Waters
_files/image002.jpg)
Miriam O and John Ford
Draft (
Historical distribution from offshore
whaling data (1785-1913) show that right whales were present in BC waters from April
to October (Townsend 1935, Scarff 1986, Brownell et
al. 2001, Clapham et al. in review), possibly feeding or migrating to or from
sub-tropical calving grounds. However,
due to insufficient data, it is not possible to describe the current
distribution of this species in
The biology and ecology of the North
Pacific right whale is poorly known. It
is unclear how many individuals exist and the location of the calving grounds
is not known (Brownell et al. 2001). Whaling records from the 1800s show that
right whales were once plentiful across much of the North Pacific (Maury 1852, Maury 1853, Townsend
1935, Scarff 1986, Scarff
1991, Brownell et al. 2001). Although
there is little information on pre-exploitation abundance of North Pacific
right whales, the population size has been estimated to have been more than
11,000 animals (NMFS 1991), and perhaps much more (Scarff
(2001). At this
time, it is impossible to produce a reliable estimate of abundance for the
North Pacific right whale or to know population trends, since virtually nothing
is known about population numbers, seasonal distribution or movements.
Although right whales were the first
whales to be protected internationally (first in 1935) and later by the
International Whaling Commission (Scarff 1986, Donovan
1992), the northern hemisphere species have shown very few signs of recovery
after being hunted extensively.
The Recovery Team identified threats
and knowledge gaps that should be addressed to improve the chances of recovery for North Pacific right whales. The primary factor affecting to the survival
of the North Pacific right whale is likely small population numbers. Additional
threats include increased marine traffic and ship strikes; entanglement in
fishing gear; habitat degradation; noise; climate change and food supply; and pollution. Identified knowledge gaps are population
structure and genetics; life history parameters and population dynamics; current
presence, abundance, distribution, migratory behaviour and habitat use in BC
waters; and clarification of threats and human influences.
The goal of this recovery strategy is
to increase the probability of survival for the North Pacific right whale in
Canadian waters and maintain long-term viability of the population. To
achieve the goal of the North Pacific right whale recovery strategy, the Recovery
Team identified that all of the following
objectives should be met:
·
Gather baseline data on presence, occurrence, abundance
and habitat to support recovery efforts.
·
Obtain better information on potential threats
to North Pacific right whales that frequent Canadian waters and the
effectiveness of strategies to mitigate these impacts.
·
Develop and implement tasks or programs to
reduce impacts from human activities on the population of right whales that
frequent BC waters.
·
Conduct long-term monitoring of the status of
North Pacific right whales and evaluate the effectiveness of mitigation
strategies.
·
Contribute to bilateral and multilateral
cooperative efforts to conserve and recover the North Pacific right whale.
·
Raise awareness and understanding of the status
of and threats to North Pacific right whales, and engage Canadians in
supporting national and international recovery efforts.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.3 Nationally significant populations
2.4 Population Sizes and Trends
3. Factors affecting vulnerability and contributing to threatened status
3.1.1 Survival and Recovery Habitat
3.3 Biologically Limiting Factors
3.4.1 Subsistence/Native Harvest
3.5.1 Population Numbers and Genetic Diversity (inbreeding depression)
3.5.2 Marine Traffic and Ship Strikes
3.5.3 Entanglement in Fishing Gear
3.5.6 Climate Change and Food Supply
3.5.8 Depensation (Allee effect)
3.6 Socio-economic Considerations
3.7.1 Population structure, genetics
3.7.2 Life history parameters, population dynamics
3.7.3 Current presence, abundance, distribution, and habitat use in BC waters
3.7.4 Clarification of threats, human influences
4.4 Considerations for Recovery:
4.4.1 Ecological and technical feasibility of species recovery
4.4.2 Anticipated Conflicts or Challenges
4.4.3 Recommended Approach / Scale for Recovery
5. Actions Already Completed or Underway
5.5 North Pacific Right Whale Recovery Team
7. Potential Management Impacts for Other Species OR Ecological Processes
Table 1. Right whale sightings/catches in British Columbia waters, 1900-2002
Table 2. Right whale sightings/catches in waters adjacent to Canadian waters, 1900-2002
Table 3. Offshore right whale sightings/catches, 1900-2002
1.
INTRODUCTION
The North Pacific right whale, Eubalaena japonica (Lacepede
1818; Rosenbaum et al. 2000b), is a large, robust baleen whale. All of the right whale species have similar
physical descriptions. Adults can reach up
to 18 metres in length, and may weigh over 100 metric tons (Kenney 2002). Females are larger than males, and newborns
are 4.5 to 6 metres long at birth (Kenney 2002). Right whales are distinguished by a stocky
body, black colouration, lack of a dorsal fin, a large rostrum (about ¼ of the
body length), strongly bowed lower lip, sometimes with white patches on their
ventral surface, and callosities on the head region (Perry et al. 1999). These callosities are irregular patches of
thickened, keratinized tissue, which can be inhabited by dense populations of
specialized amphipod crustaceans, known as cyamids (Kenney
2002). Two rows of long (up to about 2.5
m in length); dark baleen plates hang from the upper jaw, with about 225 plates
on each side. The tail is very broad,
deeply notched, and all black with a smooth trailing edge. They have a distinct V shaped blow, upwards
of 5 metres in height. Right whales lack
elastic throats, unlike other baleen whales that have pleated, elastic throats
used to gulp food consisting of large krill or fish. The right whale feeds almost exclusively on
copepods (Calanus
spp.), which are gathered by moving through dense
patches of these organisms with their huge mouths open. Typical feeding dives last for 10-20 minutes
(Kenney 2002).
No significant morphological
differences have been documented between right whales in the
Basic aspects of the biology and
ecology of the North Pacific right whale remain poorly known. The size of the population is not precisely
known, and the location of the calving grounds are not
known (Brownell et al. 2001). Whaling records from the 1800s show that right
whales were once plentiful across much of the North Pacific (Maury 1852, Maury 1853, Townsend
1935, Scarff 1986, Scarff
1991; Brownell et al. 2001).
Concentrations were present in waters around
Right whales
were once hunted extensively by commercial whalers. They are large, slow swimming, tend to
congregate, and their thick layer of blubber usually prevents them from sinking
when killed, but many did in fact sink before they could be flensed (Scarff 2001). These
attributes made them an easy and profitable species for early whalers,
recording total mortalities estimated at between 26,500 and 37,000 right whales
in the North Pacific (Scarff 2001). These were the first whales to be protected
internationally (in 1935) (although that protection was only partial since
neither
2.1 Current Status
Common name: North Pacific right whale
Scientific name:
Eubalaena japonica
Assessment
summary: April 1987
COSEWIC status: Endangered
Reason for designation: A
rarely seen baleen whale in BC
waters. Once highly prized by commercial
whalers, right whales appear to represent an extreme example of the inability of
whale stocks to recover from severe depletion.
There is very little
known about the abundance and distribution of these baleen whales.
Occurrence in
Status
history: Endangered
status originally assigned by COSEWIC April 1980 (Hay 1985). Endangered status reaffirmed April 1985, 1987
(Gaskin 1987) and 1991 (Gaskin 1991).
2.2 Distribution
2.2.1 Global
range
Whaling records indicate that right
whales in the North Pacific ranged across the entire North Pacific, from the
western coast of North America to the Russian Far East (Scarff
1986, Scarff 1991, Brownell et al. 2001, Clapham et
al. In review).
Before right whales in the North Pacific were heavily exploited by
commercial whalers, concentrations were found in the
There are very few data on the current
summering and wintering grounds of the North Pacific right whale. In the western North Pacific, feeding areas
have been found in the
Migratory patterns of the North Pacific
right whale are unknown, although in other oceans right whales generally spend
the summer on high-latitude feeding grounds and migrate to more temperate
waters during the winter (Braham and Rice 1984). They are found across a wide range of
latitudes during both summer and winter, which is evidence of a staggered
migration (Scarff 1991, cited in Brownell et al.
2001). This seasonal movement is also
evident in monthly plots of 20th century and historical records
(Clapham et al. in review). It is
important to stress that very few sightings exist, and because of low
population numbers little is known about the current distribution of North
Pacific right whales.
2.2.2
Canadian range
Historical concentrations from offshore whaling data
(1785-1913) show that right whales were present in BC waters from April to
October (Townsend 1935, Clapham et al. in review), possibly feeding or
migrating to or from sub-tropical calving grounds (Figure 1). Due to insufficient data, it is not possible
to describe the current distribution of this species in
Figure 1. Map of historical right whale
catches in the eastern North Pacific from logbook records of American whaleships (replicated from Townsend 1935). The dot colour
represents month of catch.
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Table 1. Right whale
sightings/catches in
|
DATE |
LOCATION |
NUMBER |
REFERENCE |
|
June, 1914 |
(no coordinates) |
1 |
Nichol et al.
2002 |
|
June, 1918 |
(no coordinates) |
1 |
Nichol et al.
2002 |
|
|
(54°35 N,
133°55 W) |
1 |
Nichol et al.
2002 |
|
|
(54°05 N,
133°40 W) |
1 |
Nichol et al.
2002 |
|
|
(53°40 N,
133°45 W) |
1 |
Pike and MacAskie 1969 |
|
|
(no
coordinates) |
1 |
Nichol et al.
2002 |
|
|
(50° N, 128° W) |
1 |
Pike and MacAskie 1969 |
|
1970 |
W of (50-55° N,
130-140° W) |
2 |
Wada 1975 † |
|
1983 |
Juan de Fuca Strait (48° 33 N, 124° 39 W) |
2 |
Reeves and
Leatherwood 1985 †† |
†
Due to the range of
coordinates given for this sighting, there is a low probability that this
sighting occurred in BC waters.
†† This is an
unconfirmed sighting.
An additional three
sightings of seven animals were recorded in US waters near the B.C./Washington
border (Table 2, Figure 2). The proximity of these sightings to Canadian waters
is important, suggesting that these animals may
be using similar habitats in Canadian waters.
Table 2. Right whale sightings/catches in waters
adjacent to Canadian waters, 1900-2002.
|
DATE |
LOCATION |
NUMBER |
REFERENCE |
|
|
SW of (45°55 N,
125°25 W) |
3 |
Fiscus and Niggol 1965 |
|
|
W of (48°20 N,
125°06 W) |
3 |
Rice and Fiscus 1968 |
|
|
NW of (47°17 N,
125°11 W) |
1 |
Rowlett et al.
1994 |
_files/image006.jpg)
Figure 2. Right whale
sightings/catches in
Twenty right whales were
caught in Alaskan waters by the American Pacific Whaling Company from 1917 to
1939 (Brueggeman et al. 1985, Reeves et al.
1985). The
Between 1958 and 1977, only seven offshore records
exist (i.e. outside the 200 mile limit to 145° W) (Table 3).
Table 3. Offshore
right whale sightings/catches, 1900-2002.
|
DATE |
LOCATION |
NUMBER |
REFERENCE |
|
Post-1958? |
50° N, 145° W |
2 |
Pike and MacAskie 1969 |
|
1963 |
51° N, 145° W |
200 |
Berzin and Doroshenko1982 (cited in Brownell
et al. 2001)† |
|
1973 |
45-50° N, 140-150° W |
1 |
Wada 1975 |
|
1974 |
40-50° N,
140-160° W |
1 |
Anonymous 1976 |
|
1975 |
40-45° N,
140-150° W |
2 |
Wada 1977 |
|
1977 |
40-50° N,
140-145° W |
1 |
Wada 1979 |
|
1977 |
45-50° N,
135-140° W |
2 |
Wada 1979 |
†
Note : Berzin and Rovnin
(1966) report 200 in all eastern North Pacific in 1963, and no large sightings
are seen near this location in their figures (Brownell et al. 2001).
Waters off of BC,
2.2.3 Percent
of Global Distribution in
Again, due to insufficient data, it is
not possible to estimate the proportion of this species’ global distribution or
population abundance currently found in
2.3 Nationally significant populations
The historical population structure for
right whales in the North Pacific is not clear. Figure 1, replicated from
Townsend (1935), shows the historical whaling data for right whales in the
eastern North Pacific from logbook
records of American whaleships. Scarff (1991) notes
that the apparent discrete populations of right whales in the eastern and
western North Pacific reflected in the Townsend charts is largely an artifact of the non-random distribution of whalers in the
North Pacific and their concentration on the eastern (Gulf of Alaska “Northwest
Ground’) and western (Kamchatka/Sea of Okhostk) areas. The more extensive sighting data shown in
the Maury charts that can be adjusted for whaling
effort suggests a more continuous distribution of right whales east to west
across the North Pacific (Scarff 1991). Although a
continuous distribution may be evident in these charts, twentieth century
sightings support the two population hypothesis (Brownell et al. 2001).
Presently, there appears to be a
minimum of two populations in the North Pacific, at least with regard to concentrations
on feeding grounds—one in the east and one in the west, with the possibility
that the western group may occur in two separate sub-populations (Klumov 1962, cited in Brownell et al. 2001). However, this division of populations is not
conclusive. Kenney (2001) argues that there are insufficient genetic or resighting data to support this separation. Nevertheless, the majority of literature
supports distinct western and eastern right whale populations, and therefore
this report does so as well.
What information exists on the eastern
population is summarized by Brownell et al. (2001) and Clapham (in press). The degree of genetic exchange between the
two populations in high latitudes or on a possible offshore breeding ground is
unknown (Brownell et al. 2001). If
genetic exchange does indeed exist on a common breeding ground, then a decline
in genetic diversity for either population could affect the survival of the
entire species.
2.4 Population Sizes and Trends
The pre-exploitation abundance of North
Pacific right whales has been estimated to be more than 11,000 animals (NMFS
1991), and perhaps twice that number (Scarff 2001). Among the large whales, Northern hemisphere right
whales have shown the least signs of recovery following depletion due to
commercial whaling. Because so little is
currently known about this population, it is impossible to produce a reliable
estimate of abundance for the North Pacific right whale or to know population
trends at this time. Most estimates
appear speculative, based upon general patterns of sightings (e.g. Berzin and Yabokov 1978, Braham
and Rice 1984, Berzin and Vladimirov
1989, Vladimirov 1994, Vladimirov
2000, cited in Brownell et al. 2001).
And even the most quantitative studies (e.g. Ohsumi
and Wada 1974, Miyashita and Kato 1998) have problems of high variance in their
estimates of abundance due to extrapolations from small sample sizes to large
areas (Brownell et al. 2001). This
problem has been attributed to the difficulty of accurately counting small
populations of whales dispersed over wide geographical areas (Gaskin 1987).
North
Pacific right whales almost certainly do not number more than those found in
the western
Ohsumi and Wada
(1974) and Wada (1976) applied effort corrections to whaling data and estimated
the population size at about 120 for the eastern North Pacific. More recently, the lack of sightings despite
considerable survey effort by
3. Factors
affecting vulnerability and contributing to threatened
status
3.1 Habitat Requirements
3.1.1 Survival and Recovery Habitat
Establishing ‘critical habitat’ is
difficult for baleen whales that can have ranges on ocean-basin scales. The current abundance, reproductive rates,
distribution patterns, migration routes, and feeding and calving grounds of
North Pacific right whales are not known. No studies or calculations have been conducted
to identify the habitat required by North Pacific right whales to achieve and
sustain a viable population. It is
therefore impossible to identify either the habitat currently occupied by the
species, or the extent needed to maintain the current population size.
Potentially important right whale
habitat has been identified in Bristol Bay (LeDuc et
al. 2001), but such areas have not been found in BC waters due to the lack of
survey effort and right whale sightings. Oceanographic modeling may allow the prediction
of potentially important habitat, and help to focus future survey efforts.
3.2 Ecological Role
North Pacific right whales are low trophic level filter feeders. Despite their large size, they feed entirely
on zooplankton, primarily copepods (Calanus spp.). A single whale can eat several tonnes of
copepods a day. It is the right whale’s
dependence on large, dense aggregations of prey that determines much of their
distribution.
It is thought that patterns of food
consumption by large cetaceans (such as the right whale) have had strong
effects on community structure in the
The reduction of baleen whales and this
shift in dominant fisheries occurred concurrently with physical changes
throughout the Pacific. Primary and
secondary production increased in the North Pacific, due to deepening and shallowing of the mixed layers of different regions (Venrick et al. 1987, Venrick
1994, Polovina et al. 1995). The combined changes in species abundance,
community composition, trophic organization and
physical factors indicate that a regime shift occurred (Benson and Trites 2002). Such a
regime shift could likely be accelerated by an abrupt change in biomass of
large whales, thus increasing the amount of plankton available to remaining
predators.
3.3 Biologically Limiting Factors
The
following biologically limiting factors could possibly prevent the recovery of
the North Pacific right whale, regardless of the additional threats to this
species’ population viability and habitat discussed in section 3.4 below.
3.3.1 K-selected Species
The two species of Northern Hemisphere
right whales possess several biological characteristics that make a species
particularly susceptible to disturbance and recovery difficult (Clapham et al.
1999). They are long-lived, females have
a late age of sexual maturity estimated at 9 or 10 years (Hamilton et al 1988),
and they have a long calving interval, generally calving every three to four
years (Knowlton et al 1994). Recently,
the average calving interval in the
3.3.2 Critically Low Numbers
North Pacific right whales have a
critically small population, which could result in low genetic diversity
(inbreeding depression) or depensation (Allee Effect), thus restricting their recovery. Indeed, evidence from mtDNA
suggests that the North Atlantic right whale went through a very small genetic
“bottleneck” (Schaeff et al. 1993), which may have
resulted in a lowered reproductive rate and increased calving interval
(Knowlton et al.1994). Although haplotype diversity (in extant individuals) is low in the
3.3.3 Food Supply
Reduction in the abundance of their
food supply has been suggested as a possible explanation for low population
growth rate in right whales. The
consequences of inadequate food supply could be either a reduction in
individual growth rates, thus delaying sexual maturity, or insufficient blubber
reserves needed for females to sustain pregnancy or lactation (Kenney et al.
1986). However, currently nothing is
known about reproduction in North Pacific right whales. Calves have been reported in the western
North Pacific (Omura 1986), but calculation of a
reproductive rate is not possible. Until
a recent sighting of a cow and calf in the Bering Sea on August 24, 2002 there
had been no sightings of calves in the eastern North Pacific since 1900 (Ferrero et al. 2000).
It is important to note, however, that although food supply may be a
contributing factor, demographic constraints are much more likely to be the
main cause of low population growth rates for the North Pacific right whale.
3.4 Historic Threats
3.4.1 Subsistence/Native
Harvest
Traditional whaling around
3.4.2 Commercial whaling
Commercial whaling for right whales
began in the North Pacific in 1835 (Scarff 1991,
2001). Whaling was most intense during
the decade 1839-1848 which accounts for approximately 80 percent of the total
historic catch of right whales (Scarff 2001). The recorded right whale catches by American
whalers amounted to at least 14,500 animals (Best 1987, IWC 1986), and Scarff (2001) estimates that the total whaling-related
mortality during the period 1839-1909, including mortality of struck-but-lost
whales and non-American whalers, was in the range of 26,500-37,000
animals. Although right whales received
some international protection starting as early as 1935, important North
Pacific whaling countries—Japan and the
Illegal whaling in the North Pacific
also occurred at a much larger scale. Brownell
et al. (2001) considered illegal hunting by the
3.5 Current Threats
There
are not sufficient data on occurrence, distribution, reproduction or genetics
of North Pacific right whales to allow determination as to whether the threats
described in this section currently exist in BC waters. Despite this lack of
knowledge, it is important to consider all possible threats that may impact right
whales occurring in BC waters. The threats listed in this section are currently
affecting right whale populations in other national and international waters and
should be investigated as potential threats off our coast.
Regardless
of the ability to ultimately identify the primary threats affecting this
population, we recognize that some of these threats (e.g., significant
ecosystem regime shifts) cannot be eliminated, regardless of what measures are
taken. For example, the effects of low genetic diversity, small population size
and climate change will be impossible to reverse through human action.
3.5.1 Population
Numbers and Genetic Diversity (inbreeding depression)
Each individual right whale is
extremely important to this population in the North Pacific. The loss of even a single individual will
almost certainly adversely affect recovery.
The low number of known females in the population is particularly
alarming, since losing a female could potentially reduce the rate of
reproduction in such a small population.
Inbreeding depression is of major
concern in the management and conservation of endangered species. The long-term
effects of extreme population depletion by commercial whaling may include
reduced genetic diversity and associated health and reproductive problems (Kenney
2002). Schaeff
et al. (1997) demonstrated from nuclear DNA that the proportion of genetic
material shared among unrelated
3.5.2 Marine Traffic and Ship Strikes
Ship strikes are the most significant
human-related source of mortality for right whales in the
3.5.3 Entanglement in Fishing Gear
Entanglement in fishing gear is a major
source of injury and sometimes death for the
3.5.4 Habitat Degradation
Defining the habitat of right whales is
difficult because these animals are wide-ranging and difficult to observe. However, as human commercial or industrial
activities are pursued in marine environments threats resulting from these
activities can be expected. Potential threats to North Pacific right whale habitat
may include major shipping channels, high traffic zones, undersea exploration
and development of mineral deposits (Silber and
Clapham 2001).
3.5.5 Noise
Right whales may rely on sound for
communication, navigation, attracting mates, or detection of predators and prey
(
Sources of noise from human activities
include, seismic testing for oil and gas exploration, active sonar and
explosives testing by the military, underwater noisemakers to deter marine
mammals from fishing nets and fish pens, marine experiments that involve the
use of loud sounds, and increasing levels of noise from everyday boat and ship
traffic (Anonymous 2000). Underwater
noise produced by commercial shipping occurs in frequency ranges similar to
those of right whale calls, thereby potentially interfering with right whale
communication (Richardson et al 1995, Kenney 2002). This could lead to displacement from
migration routes or important habitats.
Evidence of displacement can be seen in a recent study indicating that
seismic surveys for offshore oil and gas being conducted off
Underwater explosions from
construction, military exercises, and oceanographic or geophysical research are
known to directly affect the physiology of whales, and may result in
mortality. In 1992, humpback whales off
3.5.6 Climate
Change and Food Supply
Climate-driven regime shifts cause
major changes in ecological relationships over large-scale oceanographic areas
(Francis and Hare 1994), and are manifested faster at lower trophic
levels in marine ecosystems (Benson and Trites
2002). An increase in surface water
temperature could result in a declining zooplankton population (Roemmich and McGowan 1995), thus changing the carrying
capacity of the Pacific (Venrick et al. 1987). Right
whales feed exclusively on zooplankton, and primarily on large calanoid copepods.
They have a narrow range of prey species preference and require prey
concentrations of exceptionally high densities.
The presence of such concentrations is dependent upon physical factors,
such as currents, and temperature. This
combination of a narrow range of prey, and the requirement of high densities of
prey dependent upon physical factors might make the right whale more sensitive
than other cetaceans to impacts from global climate change (Kenney 2002).
Competition from sei
whales has also been suggested as a limiting factor on right whale populations
in the
Inadequate food supply was addressed by
Kenney et al. (1986), who suggested that the consequences could be either a
reduction in individual growth rates, thus delaying sexual maturity, or
insufficient blubber reserves needed for females to sustain pregnancy or
lactation. He also suggested that a
reduction in the abundance of copepods, caused by either climate change or
competition, is a possible explanation for the low population growth rate in
right whales (Kenney 2002). Furthermore,
any impacts may be amplified by matrilineal fidelity to feeding grounds, and
possibly a low ability to locate new feeding grounds when changing conditions lead
to a shift in prey distribution.
3.5.7 Pollution
Pollution may affect whales in various
ways. Non-food items or contaminants
could be ingested directly during feeding (Katona and
Kraus 2001). Right whales feed in
convergent zones and slicks where surface currents concentrate anything that
floats, including contaminants, oil, and floating garbage (Carr 1985). Baleen whales may also be affected through
impacts on marine productivity (O’Shea and Brownell 1994), especially right
whales due to their specialized copepod diet.
Contaminants can enter the tissues
either directly (e.g. ingestion)
from the environment or through bioaccumulation from prey. Organochlorine
compounds (∑DDT and PCBs) and metals are the contaminants of most concern
for marine mammals. Despite high
concentrations of PCBs in fish- and mammal-eating cetaceans (i.e. St. Lawrence
Belugas and Pacific killer whales) (Béland et al. 1993, Ross et al. 2000, Addison and Ross
2001, Grant and Ross 2002, Ross 2002a, Ross 2002b), right whales are low trophic level grazers, thus minimizing the concentrations
of contaminants accumulating via their prey.
O’Shea and Brownell (1994) reported that concentrations of contaminants in baleen whales were generally much
lower than in odontocetes; however, they emphasize that
additional samples would be valuable.
3.5.8 Depensation (Allee effect)
It is believed that populations at very
low densities exhibit reduced reproductive rates (Anonymous 2000). This is the opposite of what would be
expected by populations that have positive density dependence. This negative density-dependence is called depensation, or the Allee effect. A population at very low density may have reduced
levels of reproduction due to a low probability of finding another right whale,
or density dependent courting behaviours that facilitate reproduction. Courting and reproductive behaviours, such as
seen in right whale “surface-active groups” that require several males, could be affected by low
population densities, resulting in reduced reproduction (Anonymous 2000). However, it will always be difficult to
verify that depensation is the cause of reduced
reproductive success when alternative explanations exist.
3.6 Socio-economic Considerations
North
American aboriginal whaling can be traced back about 3000 to 4000 years (Monk
et al. 2001). Right whales were once a
valuable resource to early whalers (early 1800s) and were historically valued
by Makah and Nuu-chah-nulth
First Nations. However, right whales
were not the primary target of aboriginal hunts, nor does it appear that they were
taken in great numbers (Brownell et al. 2001).
The aboriginal right to hunt whales by First Nations in
A thriving whale-watching industry
has developed on the BC coast during the past two decades, but there is
currently no commercial whale-watching value for the North Pacific right
whale. The species’ is too rare to
sustain a whale-watching industry focussed solely upon the North Pacific right
whale.
The value of a right whale is no longer in
its baleen and oil, but in its intrinsic worth (i.e. the perceived rather than
the monetary value). The rarity of
encountering this large charismatic mammal, so important to human history,
gives right whales an enormous intrinsic value.
3.7 Knowledge Gaps
There is an urgent need for information on the
distribution, biology, ecology and threats to the North Pacific right
whale. Knowledge of the species is not
yet adequate to clearly define recovery objectives or approaches.
3.7.1 Population structure, genetics
There are uncertainties about
population structure and number of populations for the North Pacific right
whale. Genetic investigations would
delineate populations, perhaps providing support for the two-population
hypothesis, or determining the number of populations. Analyses using both mitochondrial and microsatellite DNA would address the question of genetic
exchange between populations in high latitudes or on offshore breeding grounds
(Brownell et al. 2001). These analyses
would provide information on genetic diversity and determine whether a
bottleneck has occurred in these populations, as found in the
3.7.2 Life history parameters, population dynamics
The life history parameters and
population dynamics of the North Pacific right whale need further investigation. Data on the abundance and population dynamics
of right whales in the North Pacific need to be collected and analysed. For example, if evidence exists for delayed onset
of sexual maturity, then potential causes such as insufficient food supply, low
genetic diversity or depensation should be
investigated.
3.7.3 Current presence, abundance, distribution, and habitat use in BC waters
Information on the occurrence,
distribution and migration patterns of right whales in the North Pacific is
critical to identifying the key factors affecting the recovery of this
species. Feeding grounds remain unknown
in BC waters, yet right whales likely exist in BC waters, though in very low
numbers. Without data on distribution,
there is no way of knowing if a conflict exists between shipping channels and
important habitats, or whether a decrease in reproductive success is a result
of shifts in prey availability.
Determining habitat use is critical
to determining the abundance and distribution of right whales in BC waters.
To determine
important habitat (including critical habitat) for right whales in BC waters, a
combination of the following research methods may be necessary:
·
Oceanographic modeling to investigate relationship with primary prey
species (Calanus copepods)
·
Ship-based surveys stratified in areas likely to have concentrations of
high density copepods (from oceanographic
modeling)
·
Ship-based surveys in areas identified as historically important habitats
·
Acoustic recording packages (ARPs) may be
placed at locations identified as potentially
important habitat to monitor for the seasonal presence of right whales.
3.7.4 Clarification of threats, human influences
The greatest threat to North Pacific
right whales is likely their critically low population size. To investigate
this threat, information on the abundance and distribution of this species is
necessary. Clarification is required on
the extent that marine projects or developments (e.g., shipping lanes,
underwater explosives) pose a threat to the North Pacific right whale by direct
and indirect impact(s). A thorough
investigation of the potential for conflict between shipping lanes and right
whale distribution may be critical to the survival of right whales, as seen in
the
It is important to note that it is not possible to
develop measurable recovery criteria at this time due to the lack of data on
the biology, distribution, abundance and threats affecting the North Pacific
right whale. Nor will it be possible to
gain enough data within a few years to develop and measure recovery criteria
for such an extremely depleted and long-lived species. Due of this uncertainty in measuring recovery
for this species, it is essential that all the recovery objectives be met to verify
that the recovery goal is achieved.
4.1 Recovery Goal
Increase the probability of survival
for the North Pacific right whale in Canadian waters and maintain long-term
viability of the population.
4.2 Recovery Objectives
To
achieve the goal of the North Pacific right whale recovery strategy, all of the
following objectives should be met.
·
Gather baseline data on presence, occurrence, distribution, abundance
and habitat to make recovery efforts possible.
·
Obtain information on potential threats to North Pacific
right whales that frequent Canadian waters.
·
Develop and implement tasks or programs to reduce impacts
from human activities on the population of right whales that frequent BC
waters.
·
Conduct long-term monitoring of the status of North Pacific
right whales and evaluate the effectiveness of mitigation strategies.
·
Contribute to bilateral and multilateral cooperative efforts
to conserve and recover the North Pacific right whale.
·
Raise awareness and understanding of the status of and
threats to North Pacific right whales, and engage Canadians in supporting national
and international recovery efforts.
4.3 Recovery Strategies
It is important to note that, for a
long-lived species such as the right whale, it may take many decades before increases
in this population can be observed. It
is therefore critical that the long-term nature of this strategy is recognized
in the development of the objectives and supporting strategies.
The following strategies include efforts
that will not only be essential to the survival of North Pacific right whales,
but may also be important for other baleen whale species that occur in the same
habitats in the region (eg. Blue,
fin, sei and humpback whales). This set of strategies should be coordinated
with other baleen whale strategies in a multi-species approach.
Scientific Research
1. Evaluate
information on preferred habitats of right whales worldwide to identify
potential critical and important habitats in BC waters.
2. Conduct
multi-species acoustically-aided surveys to examine the potential occurrence of
North Pacific right whales in areas formerly occupied off the BC coast.
3. Deploy
multiple remote acoustical recording packages to monitor for the presence of
North Pacific right whales off BC.
4. Utilize
platforms of opportunity and develop sighting networks to take advantage of
opportunistic sightings.
5. Develop
procedures and protocols to respond to any stranding of a right whale.
6. Coordinate
with international research efforts on right whales to ensure that photographic
identification, collection of skin samples and other procedures are done in
such a way as to maximize knowledge and collaboration.
7. Compile
all historical information and a list of archived samples (including skeletal
remains) available for the North Pacific right whale.
8. Undertake
population viability analyses of the North Pacific right whale population.
Threats
Research
1. Evaluate
information on human impacts on right whales and other cetaceans worldwide to
determine whether similar human activities off BC could affect the right whale.
2. Review
mitigation measures that have been effective in other regions and countries,
and where appropriate, incorporate such measures into mitigation efforts for
the North Pacific right whale.
Mitigation
and Protection
Some
of the strategies set for this objective address potential
threats in BC waters that can be acted upon immediately, while others
call for action following the identification and assessment of new threats.
1. Protect
potential critical habitat for the North Pacific right whale in BC waters.
2. Ensure no
right whales are killed by commercial or aboriginal hunting. One option may include
3. Take
immediate steps to minimize impacts of threats identified through research or
circumstance.
4. Establish
response programs for disentangling right whales in fishing gear and examine
fishing practises of those gear types found to entangle right whales.
5. Review
appropriate laws and infrastructure needed to enable possible changes in
shipping lanes and shipping operations.
6. Ensure
inter-agency coordination within and between provincial and federal governments
to develop stringent assessment processes that explicitly consider potential
impacts on right whales and their habitat from human activities, including:
·
broadcast
of loud underwater sounds
·
oil
and gas exploration and development
·
coastal
development
·
aquaculture
·
industrial
activities
·
military
activities
·
fisheries
7. Review
national and international oil spill contingency plans to ensure they include
measures to protect right whales and their habitats.
Monitoring
and Evaluation
1. Evaluate whether
current research efforts are effectively monitoring the North Pacific right
whale, and take steps to improve research strategies where needed.
2. Continue long-term
monitoring of the occurrence of North Pacific right whales.
3. Evaluate data on trends in North Pacific
right whale distribution and abundance in BC waters and throughout their range.
Coordination
1. Ratify,
respect, and/or contribute to international instruments, particularly the
International Whaling Commission, that promote North
Pacific right whale protection and recovery.
2. Initiate
agreements and collaborative projects that promote conservation and protection
with countries that share the population of right whales that frequents Pacific
Canadian waters.
3. Facilitate
exchange of individuals from government, academia, industry, and non-government
organizations for participation in international research and recovery
programs.
Education
and Awareness
This
set of strategies should be coordinated with other cetacean strategies in a
multi-species approach.
1. Promote
awareness of North Pacific right whale conservation and recovery issues within
government departments.
2. Develop
public awareness campaigns and educational programs that highlight right whale
status, distribution, biology, threats and recovery efforts in
3.
Promote public involvement in stewardship programs.
4.4 Considerations for Recovery:
4.4.1 Ecological
and technical feasibility of species recovery
At present, adequate knowledge does not
exist for an accurate assessment of the feasibility of recovering North Pacific
right whales.
4.4.2 Anticipated Conflicts or Challenges
The greatest foreseeable obstacle to
the goal and objectives of this recovery plan is the rarity of the North
Pacific right whales. Although there has
been very little search effort in BC waters, sightings of right whales in adjacent
Habitat protection may need to be
large-scale, which could create opposition. Consideration of impacts on the North Pacific
right whale in the environmental impact assessment for any off-shore
developments could be seen as an obstacle to industry (e.g., ports, oil and gas
exploration and dredging). Strategies to
minimize entanglement in fishing gear may affect commercial fisheries through area
closures and gear changes. Any restrictions on large-scale underwater noise could
affect seismic and military activities. All of these measures will require
cooperation from these industries, and could result in technical, economic,
commercial, legal and political conflict.
The
recovery strategy needs to ensure that conservation strategies on this
long-lived species are maintained, and that long-term research and monitoring
of trends are continued over time. This
will require consistent and adequate levels of funding.
Clarification
is needed on the position of aboriginal subsistence hunting. There should be no subsistence hunting of the
North Pacific right whale due to its extreme rarity. This may be a source of conflict if First Nations
decide to pursue traditional hunts in the future.
4.4.3 Recommended Approach / Scale for Recovery
A long-term approach to research and
conservation action is essential to the recovery of this species. Right whales, like all baleen whales, occur
over large oceanographic spatial and temporal scales. Thus, for this strategy to be successful, it
will require dedicated long-term funding and research support.
A multi-species research program is the
recommended approach for the recovery strategy.
Future recovery strategies for other baleen whales at risk are anticipated
to have similar objectives and strategies, and will directly benefit from the
foresight of developing an efficient multi-species research program.
5.1
Research
in Canada
5.1.1 Pacific Canada
Until recently, research on the North
Pacific right whale was absent on the Pacific coast of
5.1.2
Atlantic Canada
Unlike right whale research in the
Pacific, right whale research in the
Western North Atlantic right whales
have been subject to serious injury and death from human activities, and have
experienced a significant decline in reproductive rates during the last ten
years (Knowlton and Kraus 2001; Kraus et al. 2001). Modeling studies by Fujiwara and Caswell
(2001) suggest that population growth rates from 1980 to 1995 declined from
λ=1.03 in 1980 to λ=0.98 in 1995, suggesting that if the 1995 growth
rate were maintained, the population would go extinct in about 200 years. This projected trajectory has led to
international calls for immediate conservation management action (Fujiwara and
Caswell 2001; IWC 2001).
In
1994, the Department of Fisheries and Oceans designated two conservation areas
for right whales (
Since
2000, a team of scientists, researchers and graduate students from the Defence
Research Establishment Atlantic (DREA) and
5.2 Legal Protection
Right whales have been protected from
commercial whaling by the International Whaling Commission (IWC) since 1949,
when
In
5.3 Listing Status
5.3.1 Status in Canada
COSEWIC does not currently distinguish
the North Pacific right whale as a separate species from the
5.3.2 Status in the US
In US waters, northern right whales
were first protected by the Endangered Species Conservation Act—the precursor
to the ESA—and are now protected by both the Endangered Species Act (ESA) and
the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA).
The northern right whale—which included
both the
5.3.3 International Status
An international assessment was
completed in 1996 by the IUCN (The World Conservation Union). This assessment delineated three “populations”—North
Pacific,
5.4 Recovery Strategies
The Canadian North Atlantic right whale
recovery plan was completed in September 2000 (Anon 2000). It was prepared by the North Atlantic Right
Whale Recovery Team, for World Wildlife Fund
The
5.5 North Pacific Right Whale Recovery Team
A recovery team for the North Pacific
right whale was formed in 2003. The team, which is coordinated by Fisheries and
Oceans Canada, includes representatives from Fisheries and Oceans Canada, the
U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service, Vancouver Aquarium Marine Science
Centre, Cascadia Research, Center for Coastal Studies
and Sierra Club. Section 10 provides
further information on recovery team members.
An
action plan will be completed within two years of approval of the Recovery
Strategy.
As mentioned in the section 4.3, the
recovery strategies include measures that will not only enhance the prospects
for the recovery of North Pacific right whales, but may also directly benefit
other baleen whales. These strategies
are not only beneficial to baleen whales, but also to other species (i.e.
benthic organisms, fish, birds, etc.) that occupy the same habitats and may be vulnerable
to the same threats.
|
Category of Activity |
Evaluation Questions |
|
Scientific Research |
Were acoustically-aided
surveys conducted and remote acoustical recording packages deployed in areas
formerly occupied off the BC coast? Were platforms of opportunity
used and sighting networks developed? Were procedures and protocols
developed to recognize and respond to right whale strandings? Have research efforts been
coordinated internationally on right whales to ensure that photographic
identification, collection of skin samples and other procedures are done in
such a way as to maximize knowledge and collaboration? Was information on preferred
habitats of right whales worldwide evaluated and used to identify potential
important habitats in BC waters? Has all historical information
been compiled and a list of archived samples made available for the North
Pacific right whale? |
|
Threats Research |
Was information on human
impacts on right whales and other cetaceans worldwide evaluated and used to
determine whether similar human activities off BC could affect the right
whale? Were mitigation measures that
have been effective in other regions and countries reviewed, and where
appropriate, were such measures incorporated into mitigation efforts for the
North Pacific right whale? |
|
Mitigation and Protection |
Have measures been implemented
to ensure no right whales are killed by commercial or aboriginal hunting? Were
immediate steps taken to minimize impacts of threats identified through
research or circumstance? Were
response programs established for disentangling right whales in fishing gear,
and were fishing practises examined? Is there a completed review of
appropriate laws and infrastructure needed to enable possible changes in
shipping lanes and shipping operations? Was inter-agency coordination
within and between provincial and federal governments successful in developing
stringent assessment processes that explicitly consider potential impacts on
right whales and their habitat from human activities? (see list of human
activities in Section 4.3, Mitigation and Protection Strategies) Were national and
international oil spill contingency plans reviewed to ensure they include
measures to protect right whales and their habitats? |
|
Monitoring and Evaluation |
Are current research efforts effectively monitoring the North Pacific
right whale, and can research strategies be improved? Has long-term monitoring of the occurrence of North Pacific right
whales continued? Were data on trends in distribution and abundance evaluated for BC
waters and throughout their range? |
|
Coordination Efforts |
Were ratifications and contributions made to international instruments
that promote North Pacific right whale protection and recovery? Were agreements and collaborative projects initiated with countries
that share the population of right whales that frequents Pacific Canadian
waters? Were measures implemented to facilitate participation of individuals
from government, academia, industry, and non-government organizations in
international research and recovery programs? |
|
Education and Awareness |
Was awareness of North Pacific right whale conservation and recovery
issues promoted within government departments? Have public awareness campaigns and educational programs been developed
that highlight right whale status, distribution, biology, threats and
recovery efforts in |
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Prepared by:
North Pacific Right Whale Recovery Team
Date Completed:
July 2003
Recommended
Citation:
O, Miriam and J. Ford. 2003. Draft National Recovery
Strategy for the North Pacific Right Whale in Pacific Canadian waters. Fisheries and Oceans
10.1 Recovery
Team Members
|
Bob Brownell |
Senior Scientist for
International Protected Resources. SW Fisheries Science Centre, Email:
Robert.Brownell@noaa.gov |
|
Carole Eros |
Recovery Plan Coordinator
- Pacific Region. Fisheries and Oceans |
|
Graeme Ellis |
Science
– Pacific Region. Fisheries and Oceans Email: ellisg@pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca |
|
Greg Silber |
Coordinator,
Large Whale Recovery Activities. NMFS, Office of Protected Resources. Email: greg.silber@noaa.gov |
|
Jerry Conway |
Species
at Risk Coordinator, Maritimes. Fisheries & Oceans |
|
John Calambokidis |
Research
Biologist; COSEWIC
Marine Mammal Subcommittee member. Cascadia
Research, |
|
John Ford |
Marine
Mammal Scientist, Fisheries and Oceans |
|
Lance Barrett-Lennard |
Marine Mammal Scientist. Vancouver Aquarium Marine Science Center.
P.O. Box 3232 Vancouver BC V6B 3X8. Phone: 604-659-3428. Email:
barlenl@vanaqua.org |
|
Marilyn
Joyce |
Marine Mammal Coordinator
– Pacific Region. Fisheries and Oceans Email: joycem@dfo-mpo.gc.ca. |
|
Miriam
O |
Cetacean Biologist,
Fisheries and Oceans Email:
omiriam@pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca |
|
Moira Brown |
Right whale scientist. Center
for Coastal Studies, |
|
Phil Clapham |
Large cetacean scientist. Large Whale Biology Program. Email: pclapham@whsun1.wh.whoi.edu. |
|
Scott Wallace |
Science
Advisor. Sierra Club. |
|
Sue Moore |
Director, National Marine
Mammal Laboratory. NMFS, Email: sue.moore@noaa.gov |
10.2 External Peer Reviewers
|
Randall Reeves |
J0P 1H0. Ph: 415-703-1440, Email: jscarff@igc.apc.org |
|
Jim Scarff |
1807
Martin Luther King #A, Email:
rrreeves@total.net |
North Pacific
Right Whales are an aquatic species under federal jurisdiction, managed by
Fisheries and Oceans Canada.
The draft Right
Whale Recovery Strategy was made available publicly via the Fisheries and
Oceans Canada webpage (http://www-comm.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/pages/consultations/rightwhale/default_e.htm. Notice of the web posting was made via a DFO
news release. In collaboration with the