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T.M. Beckley1, Tom Beckley, University
of New Brunswick R.F. Smith2,3, Ron Smith, Canadian Forest
Service S.I. Cameron2,
and R. Hart4
¹University
of New Brunswick, Faculty of Forestry and Environmental Management
2 Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service – Atlantic
Forestry Centre
3 Corresponding author, Telephone: (506) 452-3500;
4Falls Brook Centre, Ramsay Hart, Falls Brook Centre
Abstract
This paper describes two partnerships formed to create, proactively
and voluntarily, a sustainable management framework for a rapidly
developing, high-value, non-timber forest product (NTFP): Taxus
canadensis, commonly known as ground hemlock or eastern yew.
Industry, government regulatory bodies, academics, government research
scientists, and a community-based, non-governmental organization
are working together to ensure sustainable management of the resource.
Sustainable harvest guidelines have been developed and are being
used on a voluntary basis. The importance of communicating results
from current research and development-related activities associated
with these partnerships is emphasized. Challenges and opportunities
in building multi-stakeholder partnerships that focus on developing
and sustaining rural communities are also discussed.
Introduction
For over two decades, many “northern” activists have
campaigned against the rampant destruction of tropical rainforests
in “southern” countries. Their arguments involved, in
part, warnings that decreased biodiversity could reduce options
regarding potentially useful, but as yet undiscovered, biological
compounds. More precisely, they often claimed that “the cure
for cancer” might exist in some rainforest organism and, therefore,
any species extinction might mean the loss of a potentially valuable
biological resource.
Paclitaxel, also called Taxol®, is a well-established cancer
drug, sold by Bristol Meyers Squibb (BMS) for clinical use since
1992. It has been called the greatest selling anti-cancer drug
in
the world (Goodman and Walsh 2001). Taxol and the closely related
taxane Taxotere® (docetaxel, produced by Aventis) had sales
of $2.3 billion USD in 2001 (Anonymous 2002). In fact, paclitaxel
has been shown to have beneficial effects against more than 20
forms of cancers and other diseases, and the list is growing.
Ironically,
plants that produce paclitaxel are not limited to remote jungles
in the developing world, but are literally found in the backyards
and woodlots in some of the most densely populated regions of North
America.
Harvesting of yew species to extract taxanes (of which paclitaxel
is but one) from bark, needles, and small twigs began about 12 years
ago. The initial source of paclitaxel was the bark of the Pacific
yew (Taxus brevifolia). However, as with many naturally
derived products, harvesting in the wild quickly exceeded sustainable
levels. During this relatively short time, uncontrolled and unregulated
harvesting resulted in serious overharvesting of wild populations
of most yew species worldwide, including the Pacific yew in western
North America and native yew species throughout Europe and Asia.
Ground hemlock (Taxus canadensis) harvesting has recently
begun, and demand for biomass is escalating at an alarming rate.
Ground hemlock is likely the world’s last untapped source
of yew biomass, and harvesters, drug manufacturers, and governments
in eastern Canada need to take immediate steps to ensure this resource
does not become depleted.
For any naturally occurring crop, overuse can be minimized in two
ways: (1) by developing biologically sound protocols to ensure that
harvesting from natural stands is ecologically sustainable, and
(2) by maximizing product yield through domestication: converting
a naturally occurring species to a commercially reared crop in order
to increase harvestable biomass and quality, and stabilize (or increase)
the long-term supply.
Historically, in North America and indeed much of the western world,
a large-scale approach has been taken to economic development of
natural resources, including non-timber forest products (NTFPs).
The focus is typically on continually increasing the efficiency
of harvest programs for the commodity of concern. Although the quality
of the supply is important, it often takes second place to quantity.
Conversely, small-scale approaches to managing natural resources
have generally proven more successful and effective with respect
to developing and sustaining rural communities. One of the key elements
to the ground hemlock project is that both are being developed concurrently.
The relatively high value of Taxus biomass is somewhat unique in
the NTFP arena. Nevertheless, many elements of the approach taken
with ground hemlock can be applied to other NTFPs.
This paper describes two partnerships formed to create, proactively
and voluntarily, a sustainable management framework for a fledgling
ground hemlock industry, and the challenges associated with balancing
economic development with sustaining rural communities.
Background
In 1997, scientists at the Canadian Forest Service - Atlantic Forestry
Centre (CFS-AFC) in Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada, initiated
a research program focusing on both conservation of ground hemlock
and private sector collaboration to develop a domestication program
following a traditional tree-improvement model. The domestication
project was designed to improve taxane yield through research in
five interdependent, yet complementary, areas: a) cultivar selection,
b) nursery propagation with rooted cuttings, c) intensive nursery
culture, d) tissue culture, and e) methods to increase taxane yields.
Cultivated crops can be a more expensive source of biomass compared
with harvesting wild foliage, because typically there is no, or
only a nominal,, stumpage fee, e.g., the cost per unit weight to
access the material. Current stumpage fees range from $0.10 to $0.25
Cdn. per kilogram. Given the fledgling state of ground hemlock harvesting
programs, coupled with the reality that this wild biomass must be
competitive in the current market, this modest stumpage fee is probably
reasonable.
Plants with higher taxane concentrations are needed if commercial
cultivation is to be an economically desirable alternative.
A main objective of this research program is to create a new crop
using ground hemlock, but a second and equally important goal is
to avoid eliminating the wild harvest. CFS-AFC researchers were
instrumental in developing sustainable harvest guidelines for ground
hemlock, co-producing the first set of harvest guidelines with the
government of Prince Edward Island (PEI) (Smith and Glen 2000).
In addition to environmental concerns, these guidelines were required
from an economic perspective. Over the next 5 to 10 years, most
of the value for rural communities, e.g., harvesters and landowners,
will be derived from ground hemlock harvested from the forest. Clearly,
landowners may reap some economic benefit from owning land stocked
with ground hemlock. Furthermore, workers may earn between $100.00
and $240.00 per day, depending upon site conditions, distance to
roads, etc. Although this is seasonal work, it represents a good
wage compared with other economic opportunities in many rural areas
of eastern Canada, where unemployment rates often reach double digits.
An NTFP Research Partnership
Knowledge regarding ground hemlock has been growing steadily since
1997, but certainly not as quickly as demand for the product. Initially
funded exclusively by the CFS, as the research progressed, various
partners and collaborators, from whom help was initially solicited,
began taking an increasingly enthusiastic and proactive interest
in this program. Most recognized the potential social and economic
benefits. Similarly, although many aspects of the biology of ground
hemlock need more research, the importance of putting existing information
in the hands of harvesters, landowners, government regulatory bodies,
and the general public is recognized.
In 2000, recognizing these research and extension needs, representatives
from three institutions, CFS-AFC, Falls Brook Centre (FBC), and
the University of New Brunswick (UNB), decided to work together
to create and disseminate new knowledge regarding three NTFPs, one
of which is ground hemlock.
The CFS, part of Natural Resources Canada, is the primary organization
responsible for forestry matters within the federal government.
It provides national leadership in research and development and
is responsible for development, coordination, and implementation
of federal policies and programs to enhance long-term economic,
social, and environmental benefits to Canadians.
Falls
Brook Centre is a non-profit, sustainable, community demonstration
and training centre in rural New Brunswick. Located on 400 acres
of Acadian forest and farmland, FBC strives to promote exemplary
sustainable practices in both forestry and agriculture through organic
gardens, orchards, forest trails, and promotion of ecological certification.
On-site activities include solar and wind energy systems, a small
conference centre, herbaria, tree nurseries, NTFP plantings (i.e.,
mushrooms, ginseng, and ground hemlock). Falls Brook Centre was
the community recipient of a Canadian Rural Partnership grant that
provided funding for the first joint research project implemented
by this partnership.
The third partner is a rural sociologist in the Faculty of Forestry
and Environmental Management at UNB. His interest is in the development
of NTFPs and, more specifically, the rapidly growing ground hemlock
industry. The structure of relationships between social organizations
(federal and provincial states, NGOs, large and small industries,
etc.) presents an interesting case in sustainable management. Furthermore,
because the market structure is just developing for ground hemlock,
and given its high value, there are several options for how the
industry might be structured, and the potential for enhanced rural
development is high, i.e., the first two steps in the value-added
chain for ground hemlock, drying the biomass and primary extraction,
could occur in rural regions where the biomass is extracted, providing
additional, much-needed jobs and income for people in rural regions
of eastern Canada.
The objectives of the partnership and, specifically, the CRP project
are to:
- Develop a unique partnership that brings together social sciences
and a community-based group with biological sciences to build
on and integrate existing scientific and socio-economic knowledge
of NTFPs.
- Develop a research and demonstration area for selected NTFPs
to examine different production methods and harvesting options,
and to provide a general introduction and basic education to persons
interested in NTFP cultivation.
- Examine the social and economic dimensions of alternative production
systems at the business and cooperative levels, and assess the
regional or community development potential of three selected
NTFP species.
- Apply the biological and socio-economic knowledge gained in
this project to developing regional guidelines for sustainable
harvesting of NTFPs.
- Provide stakeholder groups with the skills and information to
make informed decisions about NTFP production and to take full
advantage of opportunities for personal and community development,
in a way that balances social, economic, environmental, and cultural
values.
The Eastern Canada Ground Hemlock Working Group
The work of the research partnership on NTFPs is relatively focused.
Although it covers a range of issues from social to genetic, its
mandate is primarily to produce and disseminate information. Formed
in 2002, the mandate of the Eastern Canada Ground Hemlock Working
Group (ECGHWG) is somewhat different. This partnership includes
the three partners listed above (UNB, CFS and FBC), but also representatives
of government agencies and harvesters themselves. Interestingly,
two very different types of government agencies are involved; business
development departments (such as Business New Brunswick) and regulatory
agencies (New Brunswick Department of Natural Resources and Energy,
Prince Edward Island Agriculture and Forestry, Nova Scotia Department
of Natural Resources) and Environment Canada (the department responsible
for administering the Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species (CITES)in Canada).
In order to achieve sustainability, it is critical that harvesters
actively participate in the process of developing and administering
guidelines. The structure of the industry is such that a small number
of companies already controls most of the harvest for the species,
and most of these large players are around the table. The first
task of the Working Group has been to agree to a “Statement
of Principles for the Sustainable Management of Ground Hemlock.”
Adherence to the principles and membership in the Working Group
are totally voluntary. The Working Group has no regulatory authority,
but the hope is that a non-regulatory sustainable management system
can be devised so that a more traditional command and control regulatory
regime may not be necessary. Governments in eastern Canada have
experienced fiscal crises in recent years, with the result that
many departments have been downsized. In most provinces, even if
a regulatory system were developed, it would be very difficult to
enforce. There simply would not be sufficient staff to check legal
or illegal harvest sites.
Statement of Principles for the Sustainable Management
of Ground Hemlock
First drafted by staff at FBC, the “Principles for the Sustainable
Management of Ground Hemlock” are in draft form and the ECGHWG
is in the process of discussing and revising them. The Principles
extend well beyond the basic biology around harvesting and regeneration,
but also include matters such as distribution of economic benefits,
information and training for the harvesting labor force, harvest
monitoring, and adherence to existing laws and regulations (such
as labor laws, international treaties, etc.).
To facilitate the sustainable management of ground hemlock, it is
essential that those involved in this emerging resource sector agree
to a standard set of guidelines. These guidelines, once fully developed,
will serve to provide a fair and effective standard for harvesters.
Through a comprehensive verification system, the guidelines will
also provide processors, consumers, and regulators with the assurance
that the resource is being sustainably managed. It is intended that
agreement from members of the ECGHWG on the following general principles
will facilitate and validate the next step in the process, the identification
of specific criteria and indicators.
Working Draft of the Principles:
- Harvesting of ground hemlock will follow all applicable provincial
and federal legislation, and international treaties.
- Harvesting of ground hemlock will not diminish the viability
of natural populations and will conserve the quality and quantity
of ground hemlock biomass through the use of appropriate harvesting
practices. On-site impacts associated with the harvesting of ground
hemlock will be minimized
- Harvesting practices must ensure the conservation of biodiversity,
soil, water, and other ecosystem attributes of harvested areas.
- Handling and transport of the resource will be done in such
a way as to maintain the quality of harvested biomass.
- Monitoring and tracking shall be conducted to ensure that harvesting
adheres to the accepted minimum standards of the Working Group
(standards are to be included as criteria and indicators under
principles 2, 3 and 4). Third-party auditing will be an integral
component of the system providing independent verification.
- Harvesters and landowners must have access to information regarding
the sustainable harvest of ground hemlock. Harvesters must be
trained and supervised sufficiently to ensure adherence to the
guidelines.
- Economic and social benefits from harvesting and processing
will be equitably distributed and focused on the long-term well-being
of forest workers, landowners and local communities.
- Exemptions from sustainable harvesting practices may be appropriate
where site conversions will result in the permanent elimination
of a population(s) from a given site.
The principles are positive and proactive, unlike many rules and
regulations that are all too often worded to emphasize which actions
are prohibited. The importance of presenting principles in a positive
wording can help bring agreement to parties that otherwise might
be at odds, e.g., biomass harvesting contractors and environmentalists.
Furthermore, determining at the outset what the partners have in
common, facilitates further dialogue and, more importantly, reduces
the adversarial atmosphere at meetings in general.
Partnering is not without potential economic benefits as well.
In fact, the tracking requirements already put in place by the pharmaceutical
companies that purchase ground hemlock for use in the United States,
require adherence to stringent guidelines. Specifically, it must
be clearly demonstrated that the biomass originates from sustainably
managed source(s). However, these regulations only pertain to biomass
destined for processing and use in the U.S. (and, by default, Canada).
Rules are considerably less stringent when the biomass is to be
exported. Under those circumstances, there is little or no incentive
to follow ecologically sustainable harvest practices. The working
group is striving to ensure that all biomass is harvested in an
ecologically responsible manner.
Discussion
The case of ground hemlock in eastern Canada offers some interesting
lessons in sustainable development partnerships for forest management.
Two linked, but distinct partnerships have been formed to ensure
that the harvest of ground hemlock is sustainable, even as the industry
is just developing. Too often, concerns with sustainability come
after a resource is already degraded. Ecological restoration at
any level is a difficult task. The proactive approach taken here
may well be a model for the development of other NTFPs.
The partnerships described herein are extremely broad. They cut
across the private and public sectors and involve researchers, community
groups, large and small firms, and multiple levels of government.
Buy-in from all players is critical to the development of a sustainable
management framework. At present, participation in the partnership
and adherence to sustainable harvest guidelines are voluntary. Laws
in the United States stipulating the use of sustainably harvested
biomass are currently a huge driver for the development of this
sustainable management framework in eastern Canada. Without the
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) rules, we would very likely
be witnessing widespread exploitative harvesting on private land
and depletion of open-access resources on public land in the region.
Finding the right balance between regulatory, voluntary, and market-based
(certification) control mechanisms will be the key to sustainability
for this and other species.
Conclusions
The use of ground hemlock as a NTFP is at an early implementation
phase. Over the coming years, we will find out if the recommended
provisions are really appropriate. Yet, it already seems that part
of the success depends on close cooperation between responsible
government authorities, industry and suppliers of the raw material.
If done sustainably, a long-term harvesting program for ground
hemlock could yield significant economic and social benefits for
eastern Canada. Two strategies for ground hemlock limiting woodland
harvesting to sustainable levels and domestication of the best plants
into a nursery crop can be used to help meet the ever increasing
demand for Taxol within the medical community. Sustainable harvesting
can provide long-term seasonal employment in rural communities.
Domestication will develop a new crop for large scale nursery propagation,
growth, and harvesting. More jobs in the nursery industry will result
for both smaller businesses and large companies.
Literature Cited
Smith, R. and B. Glen, 2000. Guidelines for Harvesting Ground Hemlock
Foliage. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, and
the PEI Department of Agriculture and Forestry, Fredricton, 2 p
Anonymous, 2002. Update on spindle poisons Part I. Taxanes, generic
paclitaxel, and novel formulations and analogs. Future Oncology
6: 1422-1455
Goodman, J. and V. Walsh, 2001. The Story of Taxol: Nature and
Politics in Pursuit of an Anti-Cancer Drug. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge UK, 282 p
Overview of the Research and Technology Transfer Program in Non-Timber
Forest Productas at AFC
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