Mineral Deposits of Canada - Prospectivity of the Grenville Province: a perspective

This synthesis should be viewed as a preliminary version of a more comprehensive, detailed and fully reviewed paper that will appear in a forthcoming major volume entitled "Mineral Resources of Canada: A Synthesis of Major Deposit-types, District Metallogeny, the Evolution of Geological Provinces, and Exploration Methods", published jointly by the Geological Survey of Canada (GSC) and the Mineral Deposits Division (MDD) of the Geological Association of Canada.

The Grenville Province with its high-grade metamorphic terranes and spectacular thrust stacks along ductile shear zones epitomized for years the roots of a Himalayan-type collisional orogen (Fig. 1; Rivers, 1983a; Davidson, 1984; Windley, 1986). This focus on the highly deformed and metamorphosed nature of the rocks and failed attempts to unveil mineral deposits in promising targets (e.g. the eastern extension of the Abitibi greenstone belt) brought intense scepticism about the exploration prospectivity of the province. The notion arose that metals must have been leached of original ore settings during high-grade metamorphism, leaving the province largely sterile even though it hosts world class Fe, Ti, Nb and Zn deposits and is renown for its industrial mineral potential (Fig. 2).

Where poorly exposed, too remote or considered intractable, the orogen was left largely uncharted with map designations such as undifferentiated pink or grey gneiss or green-rock complexes (see historical perspective in Davidson, 1998a). As for the best and most easily mapped units of the province, the major sedimentary basins and anorthosite massifs, they remain even today sites of major discrepancies in map coverage and quality of information (cf. Fig. 3; Parsons, in press).

A new paradigm is emerging with the recognition that the main crustal build-up of the Grenville Province is Andean in type (Rivers, 1997), that metamorphism is mostly isochemical, and that undifferentiated gneiss complexes conceal large mafic-felsic intrusions with magmatic Ni-Cu-Co sulphides and volcano-plutonic belts fertile in Cu, Au, U, REE, etc. Though part of the deep crust at some point in their history, many segments of the Grenville Province were formed initially at or near surface, or in the mid crust. In this review, these geological terranes are considered globally as prospective as any others formed at such low to mid crustal depths. That they are now tectonically juxtaposed and metamorphosed does not facilitate their recognition but does not affect their potential in terms of resources (Fig. 4). This synthesis capitalizes on major advances in understanding metamorphosed ore deposits, their settings and appropriate pathfinders as well as on the largely isochemical nature of high-grade metamorphism to address the prospectivity of the Grenville Province (e.g. Trägårdh, 1991; Schandl et al., 1995; Spry et al., 2000; Tomkins and Mavrogenes, 2002; Wanhainen et al., 2003; Slagstad et al., 2004).

In this overview of the Canadian Grenville Province, the detailed geological picture provided by Davidson (1998a) for the DNAG volume is not duplicated. Instead, the focus is placed on geological contexts that, we think, have particular significance for assessing the exploration prospectivity of the orogen. Wherever possible, a page link is provided to more exhaustive descriptions and data in review papers that target the tectonic evolution and the geology of the orogen (e.g. Rankin et al., 1993; Hocq, 1994; Davidson, 1995, 1998a, b; Easton, 1992; Rivers, 1997; Carr et al., 2000; Gower and Krogh, 2002, 2003; Rivers and Corrigan, 2000; Tollo et al., 2004) and its current mineral resources (Easton and Fyon, 1992; Sangster et al., 1992; Clark, 2000, 2001a; Gauthier and Chartrand, in press). The readers can also consult landmark volumes The Grenville Problem (Thompson, 1956; Osborne, 1956, p. 13), The Grenville event in the Appalachians and related topics (Bartholomew, 1984), The Grenville Province (Moore, 1986; Moore et al., 1986), Mid-Proterozoic Laurentia-Baltica (Gower et al., 1990) and Proterozoic tectonic evolution of the Grenville orogen in North America (Tollo et al., 2004), as well as recent special issues stemming from the Lithoprobe program (e.g. Abitibi-Grenville Transect, Ludden and Hynes, 2000a; Eastern Canadian Shield Onshore-Offshore Transect, Wardle and Hall, 2002) and the International Geological Correlation Programme (IGCP) Project No. 440 on the Assembly and Break-up of Rodinia (e.g. Meert and Powell, 2001). Metamorphism across the Grenville Province and its orogenic significance are covered in Berman et al. (2000), Easton (2000) and Rivers et al. (2002) and are not discussed in detail here. However, the implication of the isochemical nature of metamorphism on mineral exploration and the positive aspects of metamorphism (i.e. to upgrade the value of a deposit and facilitate its discovery) is taken into account in discussing prospectivity.

Several competing lithotectonic and timing nomenclatures are currently in use for the Grenville orogen as reviewed in Tollo et al. (2004) (e.g. Wynne-Edwards, 1972; Hoffman, 1989; Rivers et al., 1989; Easton, 1992; Davidson, 1995, 1998a; McLelland et al., 1996; Rivers, 1997; Carr et al., 2000; Gower and Krogh, 2002; Rivers et al., 2002). Among them, two pan-Grenville Province schemes are principally used: the tectonically-based subdivisions of Rivers et al. (1989) adapted to take into account current understanding of the orogen and the tectono-geographic subdivision of Wynne-Edwards (1972). In the former, the major lithotectonic elements of the Canadian Grenville Province are subdivided into two main semi-continuous orogen-parallel stacked belts known as the parautochthonous belt and the structurally overlying allochthonous polycyclic belt, as well as into a series of supracrustal-dominated belts formerly grouped as the allochthonous monocyclic belt (Fig. 1).

The parautochthonous belt (parautochthon) consists of supracrustal and plutonic rocks of the proto-Laurentian craton that have been reworked to some extent during the Grenville orogeny, i.e., during the age interval of 1080 to 980 Ma following Gower and Krogh (2002). These reworked Grenville foreland components include 1) the Archean greenstone and gneissose belts of the Superior and Nain cratons, 2) the intervening Paleoproterozoic accretionary orogens with reworked Archean core zones defining the south-eastern Churchill Province (2780-1740 Ma; Wardle and Hall, 2002), 3) the Paleoproterozoic Southern and Makkovik provinces that formed along the proto-Laurentian craton and are preserved at least at both ends of the Grenville Province, and 4) the various Paleo and Mesoproterozoic intrusive suites that intruded them (details in Davidson 1998a, p. 215-225). Within these large-scale entities of the parautochthon, supracrustal units and intrusive suites can be demonstrated in many cases to be reworked or faulted extensios of those of the Grenville foreland (e.g. Daigneault and Allard, 1994). The exploration prospectivity of such parautochthon units in terms of pre-existing ore deposits should largely mimic that of the foreland itself (Allard, 1978, 1979). In some cases, however, unit-to-unit correlations point to complexities that include among others potential sedimentary facies changes and severe disruption of foreland units (e.g. Davidson, 2001; LaFlèche et al., in press). Grenville Province rocks have been thrusted over those of the foreland along a series of faults and shear zones that truncate the structural trends of the proto-Laurentian craton. These faults and shear zones define the Grenville Front and mark the northwestern boundary of the Grenville Province (Davidson, 1998a, p. 218; Davidson, 2001). They are in some cases reactivated from earlier Archean to Mesoproterozoic structures that have acted as persistent crustal weaknesses (e.g. Corrigan et al., 2000; Krogh et al., 2002). The Front does not correspond to a suture, although gravity and aeromagnetic signatures along it are anomalous (e.g. major gravity low) and truncate foreland gravity and aeromagnetic lineaments. Crustal-scale thrusts and ramps, as well as crustal breaks in the Moho architecture at and south of the Grenville Front are imaged in seismic transects and indicate that this zone is a major crustal structure (Green et al., 1988; Davidson, 1998a, p. 251-253; Ludden and Hynes, 2000b; Martignole et al., 2000; Rondenay et al., 2000). Significant Archean crust underlies the orogen and the extent of the parautochthon at depth mimics the distribution of anorthosite massifs at surface (Fig. 1). This coincidental feature is considered of metallogenic significance for magmatic Ni-Cu-Co sulphide, PGE, Fe-Ti oxides and IOCG deposits (Gauthier et al., 2004c).

The allochthonous polycyclic belt includes Paleo- and Mesoproterozoic rocks that have been thrusted on the parautochthon along the Allochthon boundary thrust and subjected to more than one orogeny (Fig. 1). These rocks are displaced with respect to their formation sites and are allochthonous. However, most are not exotic with respect to Laurentia. In fact the allochthonous belt was largely built through Paleoproterozoic and Mesoproterozoic magmatic events along the Laurentian margin as described below. In Québec and Labrador, the Allochthon boundary thrust is clearly delineated by an abrupt change in aeromagnetic signature (Davidson, 1998a, p. 225). In Ontario, the location of this boundary fault is difficult to assess based on aeromagnetic signature. Difference in chemistry between 1.16 Ga coronitic metagabbro bodies in the allochthonous belt and the Sudbury dyke swarm of the parautochthon served to refine its position (Ketchum and Davidson, 2000). A high-pressure belt, with eclogite-facies and high-pressure granulite-facies assemblages, forms semi-continuously the structurally lowest segments of the allochthonous polycyclic belt (Ludden and Hynes, 2000b; Rivers et al., 2002). Recognition of this high-pressure belt is of metallogenic significance for Ti deposits as it permits transformation of ilmenite into rutile (Cox and Indares, 1999; Gauthier and Chartrand, in press). It may also have implications for diamond and saphire exploration.

The monocyclic belt was defined as comprised of the Central Metasedimentary Belt, the Morin terrane, Adirondack Highlands and Wakeham Group on the basis that they were thought to have formed coevally during the 1.35-0.95 Ga 'Grenville orogenic cycle' as defined by Moore and Thompson (1980) (Rivers et al., 1989). This subdivision is now obsolete following age refinements for its proposed constituents. In this contribution we follow Tollo et al. (2004) after Rivers et al. (1989) and Carr et al. (2000) and refer to the Wakeham terrane, the Composite Arc Belt and the Frontenac-Adirondack-Morin Belt. The Composite Arc Belt, defined in Ontario, consists of 1.30-1.25 Ga carbonate and clastic sediments deposited coevally with mafic to felsic volcanic rocks and associated intrusion of tonalitic plutons (Carr et al., 2000). It encompasses the various domains of the Elzevir terrane, the Parry Sound domain and the Bancroft terrane. In the latter, hydrothermally altered volcanic rocks are now recognized as having precursors with geochemical and isotopic signatures diagnostic of Composite Arc Belt volcanic rocks (Peck and Smith, in press). The northern extension of the Composite Arc Belt into Québec following Tollo et al. (2004) encompasses the entire Québec segment of the Central Metasedimentary Belt (tectonic subdivision of Wynne-Edwards, 1972), while in Carr et al. (2000) it encompasses solely its western margin. This discrepancy is attributable to some major knowledge gaps in the age and paleotectonic setting(s) of the supracrustal rocks in western Québec. Currently 1.45-1.3 Ga volcano-plutonic continental arc and island arc have been documented and dated within structural windows of the marble-rich and quartzite-rich domains of the Central Metasedimentary Belt in Québec and within the La Bostonnais Plutonic Complex and Montauban Group of the Portneuf-Mauricie domain (Fig. 1; Nadeau and van Breemen, 1994; Nadeau et al., 1999; Nantel and Pintson, 2002; Blein et al., 2003; Wodicka et al., 2004). Dated arc components within the 1.30-1.25 Ga age range are restricted to a 1.28 Ga tonalite sheet at the southeastern end of the quartzite-rich domain (Cieselski and Sharma, 1995). Williams (1992) also reports arc tholeiites and boninitic basalts in the region of the Calumet deposit and interpret them as extension of the Elzevir terrane in Ontario, noting similarities with the Montauban Group rocks, now known to be 1.45 Ga in age. Previously considered coeval with the Composite Arc Belt, the age of the Wakeham terrane is now bracketed between 1.6 and 1.5 Ga with upper stratigraphic levels being bracketed between 1.52 and 1.50 Ga (Wodicka et al., 2003; van Breemen and Corriveau, in press).

The parautochthonous and allochthous belts and the Composite Arc Belt are subdivided into a series of terranes (defined as tectonically bounded segments of orogenic crust distinguished from adjacent terranes on the basis of metamorphic, structural, and age characteristics; e.g. Davidson, 1995) or domains. Details of the various terrane and domain subdivisions and their settings can be found in Easton (1992), Wardle et al. (1997), Carr et al. (2000), and Gower and Krogh (2002). The various terranes are separated by major Grenvillian shear zones that were active during thrust assembly and subsequently reactivated in some cases as extensional shear zones (Davidson, 1984; Hanmer, 1988; Culshaw et al., 1997). In some allochthons, such as those of Ontario, highly strained gneisses are not restricted to the domain boundaries but extend within the domain itself recording deep crustal ductile flow subsequent to crustal thickening (Culshaw, in press). Key structural elements associated with buckling and shearing during gneissic flow and L-S tectonites formed during shearing help decipher the contractional and extensional phases of the Grenville orogeny (Culshaw, in press; Schwerdtner et al., in press).

The main crustal build up of the Grenville Province occurred through prolonged, 1.8 to 1.24 Ga, Andean-type continental arc and intracontinental back-arc magmatism with some lateral accretion of magmatic arcs (Rivers, 1997; Hanmer et al., 2000; Gower and Krogh, 2002). The main magmatic arc events currently documented are associated with the late Paleoproterozoic Labradorian (1.71-1.60 Ga) and the Mesoproterozoic Pinwarian (1.52-1.46; Gower and Krogh, 2002) and Elzevirian (ca. 1350-1185 Ma; McLelland et al., 1996) orogenies. Prior to the laterally extensive Labradorian and Pinwarian arcs, the southeastern margin of Laurentia was reworked by the 1.9-1.8 Ga Makkovikian and Penokean orogenies, of which relicts are currently found in the Grenville Province of Labrador and Ontario respectively.

During the Makkovikian (1.9-1.8 Ga) orogeny, juvenile composite arc terranes were accreted to the Nain Province and 1.9-1.87 Ga continental magmatic arcs formed above a northwest-dipping subduction zone. This was followed by the development of a 1.86-1.85 Ga successor rifted or back-arc volcano-sedimentary basin hosting voluminous felsic A-type melts (e.g. Aillik Group, Fig. 5; Schärrer et al., 1988; Ketchum et al., 2002; Sinclair et al., 2002). Between 1.81 and 1.78 Ga, the area was subjected to a first transpression event (at amphibolite-facies) and then to a subsequent 1.74-1.71 Ga one (at greenschist facies) accompanied by emplacement of A-type granitoids (Ketchum et al., 2002). This last time interval is contemporaneous with emplacement of the Killarney Magmatic Belt that intrudes the Huronian Supergroup and gneisses of the southwestern Grenville Province in Ontario (e.g. Davidson and van Breemen, 1994; Rogers et al., 1995). Both the Killarney Belt and the Central Mineral Belt and their fault zones are currently the sites of mineral exploration for iron oxide Cu-Au-U (IOCG) deposits (Fig. 5). Evidence for post-1.8 Ga (post-Makkovikian) and pre-1.71 Ga (pre-Labradorian) magmatic belts at both end of the Canadian Grenville Province may point to the presence of a large-scale magmatic episode along the entire Laurentian margin. If this was the case, then the Grenville Front in the central Grenville Province could also be prospective for IOCG deposits. Unfortunately current lack of knowledge in the geology of the central Grenville Province hinders grass roots exploration in that area.

In Labrador, 1.68-1.65 Ga juvenile arc terranes now recorded by strongly foliated or gneissic calc-alkaline intermediate to felsic rocks have a distinct northward polarity of emplacement and are interpreted as having formed outboard of Laurentia above a south-dipping subduction zone (e.g. Lake Melville, Hawke River, and Groswater Bay terranes; Fig. 5). These rocks were accreted to the Grenville foreland, metamorphosed at high grade, migmatized and deformed by 1.65 Ga. High P-T conditions have led to the local formation of sapphirine in pre-Labradorian supracrustal belts (Gower and Krogh, 2003, p. 156). The suture then became the site of 1.65 Ga transitional calc-alkaline to alkali-calcic felsic plutonism and volcanism and associated minor sedimentation. These rocks constitute the Trans-Labrador batholith (Groswater Bay terrane) and associated northern supracrustal sequences. Minor, coeval and related felsic volcanic and plutonic rocks are documented to the south such as in the Pinware terrane. Coeval with the Trans-Labrador batholith is the onset of large-scale 1.65-1.62 Ga mafic-anorthositic-monzogranitic magmatism (e.g. Mealy Mountains Intrusive Suite and coeval mafic layered intrusions in the Mealy Mountains terrane, Fig. 5). Contemporaneous emplacement of these distinct magmatic suites has led Gower and Krogh (2003, p. 167) to reassess the origin of the Trans-Labrador magmatism as formed through crustal thickening after collision and arrested subduction instead of being the product of continental arc magmatism above a north-dipping subduction zone. Duchesne et al. (1999) proposed the crustal tongue-melting model for the formation of the anorthosite massifs, layered intrusions and associated intrusive rocks. Arrested subduction and development of a passive margin after the 1.7-1.6 Ga Labradorian Orogeny is compatible with the currently observed lapse in magmatism during geon 15 and the deposition of the Wakeham Group, assuming it is a passive margin basin (Gower and Krogh, 2002, 2003). However, it conflicts with the presence of 1.61-1.55 Ga inherited magmatic-like zircons in volcanic rocks stratigraphically overlying the Wakeham Group and by contemporaneous inheritance in nearby plutons (van Breemen and Corriveau, in press). These geons 16 to 15 xenocrysts and the presence of the Pinwarian magmatic arc volcanic rocks at the upper stratigraphic level of the Wakeham Group suggest a link of the Wakeham Group sedimentation with arc tectonics and on-going subduction for geon 15 (van Breemen and Corriveau, in press).

Pinwarian and Labradorian plutons are intertwined in most of the eastern Grenville Province to the south of the Trans-Labrador batholith and their resemblance commonly makes them indistinguishable without systematic age dating (Gower and Krogh, 2002; Heaman et al., 2004). Labradorian mafic magmatism is also documented in the Lelukuau terrane and the Tshenukutish domain (Fig. 1; Cox et al., 1998). Along the St. Lawrence coast, no Labradorian plutons have been found to date but inheritance in Pinwarian plutons and volcanics and Nd model ages suggest that concealed Labradorian crust extends as far southwest as Sept-Îles, west of the Wakeham Group and as far southeast as the Long Range inlier in the Appalachian Orogen of Newfoundland (Dickin, 2000, 2004; Heaman et al., 2002; van Breemen and Corriveau, in press; Fig. 1A, Fig. 5). Labradorian age rocks are also documented in the western Grenville Province of Ontario (e.g. Slagstad et al., 2004).

In contrast to Labradorian plutonism, Pinwarian 1.52-1.46 Ga plutonism is now known to extend and represent a major crustal component from the Pinware terrane of Labrador as far west as the Saguenay area in the central Grenville Province, north to the Lake Melville and Mealy Mountain terranes of Labrador and east to the Long Range inlier (Fig. 1; Tucker and Gower, 1994; Wasteneys et al., 1997; Corrigan et al., 2000; James et al., 2001; Nadeau and James, 2001; Gower and Krogh, 2002; Heaman et al., 2002, 2004; Dickin, 2004; Hébert and van Breemen, 2004). This largely plutonic activity is interpreted as a manifestation of an Andean-type continental margin magmatic arc above a northwest-dipping subduction zone. The ~ 100 000 km2 Quebecia 'terrane' stretching from the arc-related Portneuf-Mauricie domain to the St-Jean domain of Gobeil et al. (2003) has homogeneous 1.55 Ga TDM model ages and may represent an oceanic arc segment accreted to the continent during the Pinwarian orogeny (Dickin and Martin, in press). Orogen-parallel rifts associated with the Pinwarian arc has led to extrusion of 1.5 Ga intra-arc mafic to felsic volcanics and pyroclastic rocks and deposition of sediments (La Romaine Supracrustal Belt and Musquaro extension of the Wakeham Group; Corriveau and Bonnet, in press). Subsequently the volcanic belts were subjected to intense, fault- and lithologically-controlled hydrothermal alterations including iron oxide alteration and Cu mineralization (Bonnet and Corriveau, in press). Further north, Pinwarian mafic intrusions and mafic dyke swarms such as the Michael and Shabogamo dyke swarms and the Rigolet diorite are interpreted as delineating aborted intracontinental back-arc basin while xenocrystic zircons suggest that basement may have Archean components (Corrigan et al., 2000).

Pinwarian, ca. 1.48-1.45 Ga arc and back-arc magmatism is also documented in the allochthonous belt of Ontario and was associated with emplacement of A-type charnockites and granites, suggesting intra-arc extension (e.g. Britt, Algonquin and Muskoka domains; van Breemen et al., 1986; Corrigan et al., 1994; Nadeau and van Breemen, 1998; Ketchum and Davidson, 2000; Slagstad et al., 2004). As in the Pinware terrane, Pinwarian arc rocks were metamorphosed at ca. 1.45 Ga in Ontario (Ketchum et al., 1994; Gower and Krogh, 2002). Pinwarian crust also extends southward at least as far as the Blair River inlier in the Appalachian orogen of Nova Scotia (Dickin, 2004; Fig. 1). The unveiled Pinwarian components attest to a major period of juvenile crustal addition in a magmatic arc along the Laurentian margin in geons 15 to 14 with a potential genetic link to the Eastern Granite-Rhyolite Belt of the mid-continental United States (cf. van Breemen and Davidson, 1988; Nadeau and van Breemen, 1998; Bickford et al., 2000; Rivers and Corrigan, 2000; Culshaw and Dostal, 2002). Slagstad et al. (2004) point out that the back-arc related A-type magmatism in the Muskoka domain could be analog to the 1.48 Ga A-type silicic rocks in the granite-rhyolite province of the mid-continental United States that host former iron oxide mines with IOCG affinities in the St. François Mountains of Missouri. Renewed magmatism took place in extensional arc settings at 1.36 Ga in Ontario furthering linkage with the mid-continental United States with the renewed 1.38 Ga magmatism in the St. François Mountains.

In the Central Metasedimentary Belt of Québec, a series of granitic to tonalitic gneiss complexes form tectonic windows of 1.4-1.35 Ga arc-related volcano-plutonic suites among thin-skinned marble and quartzite domains (Corriveau and Morin, 2000). The 1.4-1.35 Ga felsic to mafic gneisses in the southern half of the belt include high-silica rhyolite and metabasalt with a back-arc signature and a series of gneisses with island-arc affinity (Bondy Gneiss Complex, Fig. 1). They are interpreted as part of a former island arc built on a thin continental substrate (Blein et al., 2003; Wodicka et al., 2004). Coeval gneisses further north have a continental arc signature (Nantel and Pintson, 2002). Such a juxtaposition of island arc and continental arc material occurs further east but at a much lower metamorphic grade. In the 1.45 Ga Montauban Group, island arc volcanic rocks are particularly well preserved while the 1.41-1.38 Ga calc-alkaline La Bostonnais Plutonic Complex provides evidence for continental arc magmatism along Laurentia (Nadeau and van Breemen, 1994; Corrigan and van Breemen, 1997; Nadeau et al., 1999; Hanmer et al., 2000). The latter magmatic event is interpreted to extend further north into the Saguenay area (Hébert and van Breemen, 2004). Taken together, these data record a long-lived arc along the southeastern margin of Laurentia. Information derived from surface geology, western Grenville Lithoprobe seismic reflectors and felsic-to-ultramafic xenoliths suggests that the intermediate and lower crust of the Central Metasedimentary Belt in Québec corresponds to a stack of arc-related gneiss complexes interleaved with non-exposed quartzite-bearing supracrustal assemblages, mylonites and mafic to ultramafic intrusive bodies. The quartzite xenoliths cannot be associated with the adjacent quartzite domain; establishing their age and chemical signatures may provide a unique opportunity to test whether or not currently known Paleoproterozoic to Mesoproterozoic sedimentary basins could have extended significantly eastward (e.g. Huronian Supergroup or Tomiko terrane metasediments) or westward (Wakeham Group). Mafic magma underplating during various episodes of orogenic events is interpreted based on a mafic-ultramafic xenoliths study (Corriveau and Morin, 2000; Morin et al., in press). The thin-skinned marble and quartzite domains of the Central Metasedimentary Belt of Québec may extend to the east into the Morin terrane and, if that is indeed the case, should be grouped with the Frontenac-Adirondack-Morin Belt. In that case, there may be little of the Central Metasedimentary Belt of Québec that could be included in the Composite Arc Belt of Carr et al. (2000) assuming that these components are exotic, an issue that remains open to debate (cf. Hanmer et al., 2000).

In the Composite Arc Belt, Elzevirian arc volcanic, plutonic and mineralizing events have been well documented (Carr et al., 2000). The belt is interpreted as consisting of 1.29-1.28 Ga primitive volcanic arc, 1.28-1.27 Ga calc-alkaline volcano-sedimentary island arc/back-arc and related tonalitic plutons and 1.26-1.25 Ga bimodal rifted volcanic arc (back-arc) amalgamated between 1.25 and 1.24 Ga (poorly constrained deformation and metamorphism) and stitched by 1.24-1.22 Ga bimodal plutons. A series of mineral deposits are related to that last magmatic event. Evidence of coeval emplacement of tonalitic plutons in adjacent metasedimentary terranes are rare and consist of a 1.28 Ga tonalite among Grenville Supergroup metasediments of the Central Metasedimentary Belt of Québec and 1.32-1.30 Ga tonalite in the Adirondack Highlands. Age of metasediments is bracketed between 1.30 Ga (detrital zircon) and 1.18 Ga (oldest Frontenac suite pluton) in Ontario are to be pre 1.2 Ga in Québec (Davidson, 1998a p. 238; Corriveau and van Breemen, 2000).

Andean-type crust normally consists of widespread not isolated volcanic, volcano-plutonic and volcano-sedimentary belts in association with plutonic activities in arcs, successor arcs, intracontinental back arcs and accreted arcs. As illustrated above, widespread arc-related volcanic activity is well documented in the low-grade metamorphic terranes of the Grenville Province (Composite Arc Belt and Montauban Group; Nadeau et al., 1999; Carr et al., 2000). In contrast extensive volcanic belts related to the successive arc build-up of the Grenville Province are currently rare in the high-grade metamorphic terranes but hints are cumulating that the Paleo- to Mesoproterozoic arc components are not solely plutonic and of mid to deep crustal levels. Conclusive evidence of volcanism is found in association with the Killarney Magmatic Belt, the Trans-Labrador batholith, the eastern margin of the Wakeham Group (Fig. 6), the La Romaine Supracrustal Belt (Fig. 7) and the Bondy Gneiss Complex and geochemically-inferred rhyolitic rocks occur in the Shawanaga domain (Fig. 1; van Breemen and Davidson, 1988; Gower, 1996; Blein et al., 2003; Slagstad et al., 2004; Corriveau and Bonnet, in press). Among those, three belts host fertile hydrothermal alteration zones and will be described in further detail in subsequent sections. Late- to post-tectonic magmatic successor events to these arc events are also proving fertile.

Large Paleo- to Mesoproterozoic sedimentary basins are preserved in the Grenville Province such as the ca. 1.3-1.2 Ga Frontenac-Adirondack-Morin Belt Grenville Supergroup and its inferred extension in the New Jersey Highlands and the Reading Prong area in northeastern U.S. (Wynne-Edwards, 1972), the 1.6-1.5 Ga Wakeham Group (Gobeil et al., 2003), the = 1.68 to = 1.25 Ga Tomiko terrane and its extension in Québec (Easton, 2003a), and the extension of the Paleoproterozoic Kaniapiskau Supergroup in the Gagnon terrane (Fig. 1).

The Grenville Supergroup encompasses several metasedimentary sequences for which age and basin correlation remains uncertain (Moore, 1986; Davidson, 1998a, p. 235). Age of deposition is for the most part unconstrained, although a maximum age of 1.30 Ga is documented for the Frontenac terrane by Sager-Kinsman and Parrish (1993). To the north, in the Central Metasedimentary Belt of Québec, a 1.2 Ga zircon age interpreted as a maximum age of deposition (Friedman and Martignole, 1995) has been reinterpreted as metamorphic in origin based on other regional data (Corriveau and Morin, 2000, p. 249). Hence, the age of the metasediments in western Québec still needs to be established. The Flinton Group overlies Grenville Supergroup rocks in the Central Metasedimentary Belt of Ontario and was deposited after ca. 1150 Ma (Sager-Kinsman and Parrish, 1993) providing evidence for a distinct age of sedimentation in the orogen. The Wakeham Group in the eastern Grenville Province of Québec is the largest remnant of the sedimentary basins that have developed on the southeastern margin of Laurentia in Mesoproterozoic time (Fig. 1). The full extent of the original basin is not known but the group is interpreted as extending further north as septa within the Mecatina terrane and to the east at least as far as the La Romaine Supracrustal Belt and likely beyond into the Saint-Augustin complex of the Pinware terrane as far as St. Augustin (James et al., 2002; Perreault and Heaman, 2003). Further east, in the Pinware terrane, metasedimentary units have a Labradorian age (Gower and Krogh, 2002) and without systematic U-Pb geochronology it is unclear to what age groups the various metasedimentary rocks of this terrane belong.

Formerly ranked as a supergroup and subdivided into two distinct volcano-sedimentary groups, 1.24 Ga in age (Martignole et al., 1994), the Wakeham Group is now known to be essentially arenaceous, largely devoid of volcanic rocks and either in tectonic or intrusive contacts with 1.5 Ga gneiss complexes and their intrusive suites (Gobeil et al., 2003). The main sedimentary sequence must be younger than 1.6 Ga based on the minimum detrital zircon age of the sediments and is thus early Mesoproterozoic in age (Larbi et al., 2003; Wodicka et al., 2003). At its eastern margin, the presence of Pinwarian 1.52 Ga detritus in the arenaceous sediments of the Musquaro extension of the Wakeham Group (Fig. 5) and of overlying felsic volcanic and pyroclastic rocks permits to finely bracket the age of sedimentation in that sector to between 1.52 and 1.50 Ga with volcanic activity between 1.51 and 1.50 Ga and sub-volcanic and intra-volcanic intrusions at ca. 1.49 Ga (van Breemen and Corriveau, in press). Isotopic signatures and detrital zircon ages of the two former groups are similar and, with field relationships, make a two-fold subdivision unnecessary (Gobeil et al., 2003; Wodicka et al., 2003; Y. Larbi, personal communication, 2004). The nature of the sandstones and the age of detrital zircons, between 1.6 and 2.6 Ga, indicate a cratonic source comprising Archean and Proterozoic rocks (Wodicka et al., 2003; van Breemen and Corriveau, in press) while the overlying volcanic rocks bear a continental arc magmatic signature (Corriveau and Bonnet, in press). The sedimentary package of the Wakeham Group is not particularly diagnostic of a unique setting and the alternative to passive margin sedimentation is deposition in an aborted back-arc setting (Rivers and Corrigan, 2000; Y. Larbi, personal communication, 2004). The group has Cu-Au-Ag epigenetic mineralization at the interface between quartzite and mafic rocks in association with aluminous gneiss and tourmalinite (Fig. 8; Clark, 2003).

Metasediments in the Tomiko terrane of Ontario comprise quartz arenite, calc-silicate rock, quartz-muscovite gneiss, feldspathic gneiss and locally marble and Mn-rich magnetite-chert iron formation associated with amphibole gneiss, aluminous gneiss and B- and Mn-rich garnet and tourmaline gneiss. Complex relationships among mineral paragenesis suggest polyphase hydrothermal activity to form the Mn-, B-, Al- and Fe-rich units. Amphibolites abound but are of uncertain origin (mafic sills or volcanic flows). The area is considered prospective for Broken-Hill type mineralization as well as for industrial minerals (garnet, graphite, kyanite, muscovite, silica, vermiculite) (Easton, 2003a). This sedimentary sequence extends northeastward into Québec. The deposition age is currently bracketed between 1.68 and 1.25 Ga. However, a Paleoproterozoic age is favoured based on the restricted zircon population of a sample dated at 1687± 20 Ma (which may point to a volcaniclastic origin) and on Nd/Sm model ages, which are 400 to 500 million years older than those of the Grenville Supergroup in the Frontenac terrane (see Easton, 2003a). The ca. 1.36 Ga Sand Bay gneiss association, west of the Tomiko terrane, consists of felsic to intermediate gneiss, amphibolite with calc-silicate horizons and quartzite interpreted as forming a bimodal volcanic suite with epiclastic and Laurentia-derived clastic sediments deposited in a back-arc environment (Culshaw and Dostal, 1997; Rivers and Corrigan, 2000).

Pre-Labradorian high-grade metasediments, some with sapphirine and corundum, and potential volcanic rocks abound in the Lac Joseph, Churchill Falls and Wilson Lake terranes of Labrador (Gower and Krogh, 2003, p. 152-153; Korhonen and Stout, 2004), whereas Labradorian supracrustal rocks are more scattered (Gower and Krogh, 2003, p. 158). Metasediments also occur within extensions of Grenville foreland basins into the Grenville Province (Huronian Supergroup, Otish and Mistassini groups, Kaniapiskau Supergroup, etc.; Davidson, 1998a, p. 215-225) and as a series of irregular belts among Labradorian, Pinwarian and younger gneissic rocks of the Grenville interior (e.g. Montauban, Saguenay, Manicouagan, Baie-Comeau, Sept-Îles, Manitou and Blanc Sablon area in Québec, and Parry Sound domain in Ontario; Davidson, 1998a; Fig. 1 in Perreault and Moukhsil, 2003).

A first order metasedimentary basin with roughly 600 km2 of units formerly interpreted as 'meta-arkose' with rare pelite, quartzite, conglomerate and marble, the former La Romaine domain of the eastern Grenville Province (Perreault and Heaman, 2003; Perreault and Moukhsil, 2003), has however recently been reassessed as a major continental arc-related plutonic domain with coeval narrow intra-arc volcano-sedimentary basins. Many of the markers likely used to suggest a sedimentary origin for the domain gneisses can be demonstrated to consist of granitic dykes with striking magmatic layering (Fig. 9), dioritic intrusive breccia and cogenetic enclaves, orthogneiss with spectacular deformation features, series of metamorphosed lapillistone, felsic tuff with aluminous nodules and veins, as well as aluminous gneiss, nodular gneiss, ironstone, calc-silicate and carbonaceous rocks of hydrothermal origin and subsequently metamorphosed (Corriveau et al., 2002, 2003). This volcano-plutonic environment is discussed below in the section on prospective arc settings.

Anorthosite-mangerite-charnockite-granite magmatism and coeval mafic intrusions

Emplacement of large anorthosite massifs and coeval batholiths of mangerite-charnockite-granite (AMCG suites) mark periods of post-orogenic activities or reactivation following the Labradorian, Pinwarian, Elzevirian and Grenvillian orogenies (e.g. McLelland et al., 1996; Gower and Krogh, 2003). In most cases mafic layered intrusions and mafic-felsic intrusions also form coevally but are spatially distinct from the AMCG intrusions (Fig. 10). For example, the oldest AMCG suite, the post-orogenic 1.65-1.62 Ga Mealy Mountains Intrusive Suite, is coeval with the Grady Island layered mafic intrusion, the White Bear Arm complex, the Ossok Mountain intrusive suite and the Alexis River layered anorthosite (Gower and Krogh, 2003, p. 160-163). Potentially coeval with this magmatism and intruded by Pinwarian-age mafic to ultramafic layered-intrusions are the granulite-facies mafic sills of the Hart Jaune terrane (e.g. 1.51 Ga Réservoir intrusion; Clark, 2000; Indares and Dunning, 2004). In other AMCG suites, a mafic rim is observed around anorthosite massifs such as in the Havre St.-Pierre, Pentecôte, De La Blache and Tortue anorthosites and components of the Lac St Jean anorthosite (e.g. Gobeil et al., 1999, 2002). The 1.37-1.35 Ga Pentecôte anorthosite massif, its marginal mafic to ultramafic intrusion and associated felsic plutons are coeval with the 1.37 Ga Matamec mafic-silicic layered intrusion and mineralized 1.35 Ga gabbro dykes (Martignole et al., 1993; Saint-Germain and Corriveau, 2003; Nabil et al., 2004), the ca. 1.35 Ga Whitestone anorthosite in the Parry Sound domain, the 1.33 Ga De La Blache anorthosite massif and a series of calc-alkaline intrusions in the southwestern Grenville (Rivers and Corrigan, 2000, p. 364; Gobeil et al., 2002).

The emplacement of the .17-1.13 Ga Marcy, Morin, Lac St. Jean, Havre St. Pierre and Fournier AMCG suites led to significant crustal build up in the central Grenville Province (Martignole et al., 2000; Wodicka et al., 2003; Hamilton et al., 2004). For the Marcy and Morin AMCG suites, post-Elzevirian orogenic emplacement is documented (Corriveau and van Breemen, 2000; Hamilton et al., 2004). Hosts were strongly metamorphosed prior to emplacement for the Morin and Lac St. Jean AMCG suites (Martignole et al., 2000; Hébert and van Breemen, 2004). Host and members of the Havre St. Pierre and Marcy AMCG suites record some high-grade metamorphism and deformation related to the Grenville orogeny (Wodicka et al., 2003; Hamilton et al., 2004). However, in the Havre St. Pierre anorthosite, a few mafic dykes have delaminated their anorthositic hosts and the septa display ptygmatitic and sheath folds solely related to their entrainment by the mafic magmas. Such field observations are among a series that illustrate the extremely ductile and power law behaviour of anorthosite at high temperature, and by inference, it can be inferred that recrystallization is in part related to emplacement. After the waning of the Grenville orogeny by ca. 1.05 Ga, late to post-orogenic anorthosite suites are documented (e.g. 974 Ma Vieux-Fort Anorthosite, Heaman et al., 2004). Some of them have magmatic Fe-Ti mineralization (e.g. Rivière au Tonnerre anorthosite, Gobeil et al., 2003; 1.02 Ga Labrieville anorthosite suite, Hébert et al., in press).

Three models are currently invoked for the formation of AMCG suites in the Grenville Province: lithospheric delamination associated with orogenic collapse (e.g. McLelland et al., 1996; Corrigan and Hanmer, 1997), delamination-related melting of underthrusted mafic crust (Gauthier et al., 2004c following the model of Duchesne et al., 1999) and mantle plume (Gobeil et al., 2003). The two late- to post-orogenic models challenge long-invoked anorogenic models stemming from Emslie (1978) and convergent not purely extensional settings have been proposed for the Lac St Jean and Morin anorthosites (Higgins and van Breemen, 1996; Corriveau and Morin, 2000).

Mafic intrusions abound in the Grenville Province (Fig. 10) and were emplaced as: 1) swarms of mafic dykes such as the 1.47 Ga Shabogamo, 1.43 Ga Micheal gabbro, 1.25 Ga Mealy and 1.24 Ga Sudbury dyke swarms (Connelly et al., 1995; Bethune, 1997; Emslie et al., 1997; Rivers and Corrigan, 2000; Davidson, 2001); 2) mafic to ultramafic sills such as the Robe noire and Lac Renzy sills (Clark, 2000; Scherrer, 2003); 3) metamorphosed, deformed, folded or tilted layered intrusions such as the 1.63 Ga White Bear Arm complex, the 1.29 Ga Blanc-Sablon gabbroic complex, and the 1.07 Ga Musquaro intrusion (Corriveau et al., 2002; Gower and Krogh, 2003; Heaman et al. 2004); 4) syn-tectonic mafic-felsic sheet intrusions emplaced in steep deformation zones such as those of the Chevreuil suite (Corriveau and van Breemen, 2000); 5) mafic intrusions with primary vertical layering such as the Montjoie and Diable intrusions (ibid); and 6) collapsed mafic-silicic layered intrusions (MASLI) such as the Matamec complex (Saint-Germain and Corriveau, 2003). All these different intrusion types have Ni-Cu magmatic sulphides potential (Wilson, 1993; Clark, 2000).

The magmatic suites in the Grenville Province are numerous and document key elements of the evolution of the orogen. Many are prospective for IOCG, Mo, Nb, U, Th and other base, precious, strategic and rare metals (Haynes, 1986; Gower, 1992; Eckstrand et al., 1996). For example, late magmatic events with A-type granitic affinity gave rise to a spectrum of 1.05 Ga U-Th-Nb-REE and Mo-enriched pegmatites and skarns in the Central Metasedimentary Belt of Ontario and Québec, to IOCG-type 1.04 Ga mineralization in the Adirondack Highlands, and to the 0.97 Ga IOCG Kwyjibo deposit in the Canatiche Complex of eastern Québec (Gauthier et al., 2004a; Selleck et al., 2004; Lentz and Creaser, in press; Clark and Gobeil, in press; Lentz and Suzuki, in press; Magrina et al., in press). The carbonatite intrusions emplaced within the Grenville province are host to major strategic metals deposits. Details of some late intrusion-related metallogenic settings are described in the metallogenic section.

Two main collisional events, the Shawinigan (1.18-1.13 Ga) and Grenvillian (1.08-0.98 Ga) orogenies, gave rise to a mountain belt with a strike length of the scale of the Himalaya. The Grenvillian event as defined by Gower and Krogh (2002) encompasses the Ottawan and Rigolet events of Rivers and Corrigan (2000) and has affected nearly the entire orogen from the eastern Grenville Province to the Adirondack Highlands and the Appalachian inliers, south to Texas and Mexico (Tollo et al., 2004 and references therein). In contrast, the Elzevirian and Shawinigan events have mostly affected the Grenville Province in Ontario and western Québec (Davidson, 1995; Carr et al., 2000; Culshaw, in press). During the Grenvillian Himalayan-type event, the province acquired its current day collisional architecture while associated extensive crustal thickening and tectonic extrusion led to widespread high-grade metamorphism (Ludden and Hynes, 2000b). Earlier metamorphic imprints including an Archean one in parts of the Parautochthon of Québec (Gariépy et al., 1990; Berclaz et al., 1995) are preserved locally while some areas have not been significantly reworked during the Grenville orogeny. For example, the Quebec section of the Central Metasedimentary Belt only displays minor shearing after 1.1 Ga (Corriveau et al., 1998; Martignole et al., 2000) though a recent oxygen isotope study unveils some resetting of metamorphosed marble and post-peak metamorphism skarns (Peck et al., in press). In Labrador, Grenvillian tectonics involved thick-skinned imbrication of Labradorian terranes. In the process large segments of the parautochthonous and allochthonous belts have not been pervasively reworked and do not have a strong tectonothermal record of the Grenville orogeny except along major shear zones (e.g. Mealy Mountain terrane, Gower, 1996; Cape Caribou River allochthon, Krauss and Rivers, 2004). These area and many others across the Grenville Province provide evidence that strain partitioning has strongly controlled the extent of preservation of pre-Grenvillian rocks and metamorphic imprints (e.g. Ketchum et al., 1994; Corriveau et al., 1998; Boggs and Corriveau, 2004).

The Grenville Province is the largest titanium province in the world, and hosts the world-class Lac Tio titanium and Mont Wright iron ore mines, as well as the Lac-des-Îles (formerly Stratmin) graphite, Bédard phlogopite (also known as Letondal) and St-Honoré (Niobec) niobium mines (Eckstrand et al., 1996; Richardson and Birkett, 1996; Stanaway, 1996; Bellemare and Jacob, 2004). Past producing mines include the world-class Balmat-Edwards Zn deposit, the New Calumet and Montauban Zn-Pb-Ag-Au (±Cu) mines, the Renzy Lake and Lac Edouard Ni-Cu deposits as well as many barite, feldspar, graphite, iron, magnesite, molybdenite, quartz, talc and uranium mines (de Lorraine and Dill, 1982; Lentz, 1996; Clark, 2000; Jacob and Bélanger, 2001; Perreault, 2003a). Among these, only the Ti, Fe and Zn deposits currently form metallogenic districts with significant ore deposits. They are presented in this section while all the others are discussed subsequently as signalling prospective metallogenic environments.

Magmatic Fe-Ti and Fe-Ti-P₂O₅-V deposits associated with anorthositic suites and mafic intrusions

Rutile (TiO₂) and ilmenite (FeTiO3) ores are mined worldwide from high T and P metamorphic rocks, mafic and anorthositic plutonic suites or placer deposits (Stanaway, 2003). In the Grenville Province, Ti ores are currently extracted from intrusion-related Ti deposits (e.g. the Lac Tio titanium deposit in the Havre-Saint-Pierre anorthosite massif) and are part of a large titanium province which, together with the Rogaland Anorthosite Province and the Fe-Ti deposits in the Ural, is located at a plate margin, notably at the limit of the reworked Archean and Paleoproterozoic terranes of Baltica and Laurentia (Duchesne, 1999; Gauthier et al., 2004c). This distribution at a former plate margin is explained in terms of the crustal-tongue melting model where subducted dry crustal mafic slabs are melted after collision rather than mantle material in a plume-related melting event. Others view the origin of these anorthosite massifs as the product of low magma productivity and flux compatible with small amount of crustal extension implicating the melting of compositionally heterogeneous continental lithospheric mantle, with a crustal component acquired during ascent, as the main source component for Proterozoic anorthosites (Scoates, 2004). This model is compatible with the field observations of the close association of anorthosite massifs with large-scale ductile shear zones.

The numerous deposits of titaniferous magnetite, magnetite-ilmenite-apatite and massive ferrian ilmenite in the Grenville Province of Québec are known since the mid 1850's. Few of them have been economically mined since 1870 and only the world-class massive ilmenite deposit of the Tio Mine in Québec is still mined and has been so since the 1950s (Fig. 1B, Fig. 11; Rose, 1969; Gross, 1996; Perreault, 2003b; Perreault and Hébert, 2003; Hébert et al., in press). In general, the deposits occur as tabular intrusions, stocks, sills or dykes in anorthosite massifs. Locally, they consist of stratiform mineralization in layered segments of anorthosite massifs or in layered mafic intrusions. Five distinct styles of mineralization are recognized:

The emplacement of these massive Fe-Ti oxides-rich rocks is attributed to an oxide-rich liquid derived from a parental oxide-rich norite, ferrodiorite or jotunite emplaced either as crystal mush or in solid state during the crystallization and cooling of anorthosite massifs (Force, 1991; Duchesne, 1999; Lindsley, 2003). An overview of the main deposits with tonnage and grade value is presented in Table 1. Currently available data suggests that ferrian ilmenite mineralizations do not occur in anorthositic plutons older than 1160 Ma in the Grenville Province (Hébert et al., in press).

The world-class Tio Mine deposit is an open pit exploited since 1950 by QIT, 42 km north of Havre-Saint-Pierre in the central Grenville Province (Fig. 1B). It was discovered in 1946 by Kennecott Copper Inc. following the identification of more than 20 significant showings by J. Retty, Kennecott and QIT in the general area.

The Tio Mine consists of a subhorizontal, massive ilmenite intrusion dissected by normal faults into the Main, Northwest and Cliff deposits. The Main deposit measures 1097 m in the N-S direction and 1036 m E-W. Its thickness is estimated at 110 m and the deposit is inclined 10° to the east. It is itself divided into three zones: the upper zone is composed of massive ferrian ilmenite, the intermediate zone of alternating layers of massive to semi-massive ferrian ilmenite and anorthosite, and the lower zone of massive ferrian ilmenite. The Northwest deposit forms a 7 to 60 m thick band of massive ilmenite alternating with anorthosite, gently dipping to the east. It is separated from the Main deposit by a late normal fault. The Cliff deposit forms a hill that overlooks the Tio Mine, and has an ellipsoidal shape. Both the Main and Northwest deposits are mined. The ore is composed of a dense coarse-grained aggregate of ferrian ilmenite. Accessory minerals are plagioclase, spinel, pyrite, and chalcopyrite. Locally, the modal proportion of sulphides reaches 2 %. The mean composition of the ore is 34.2 % TiO₂, 27.5 % FeO, 25.2 % Fe₂O₃, 4. 3 % SiO₂, 3.5 % Al₂O₃, 3.1 % MgO, 0.9 % CaO, 0.1 % Cr2O3, and 0.41 % V₂O₅. The Main deposit contains at least of 125 millions tons of ore (Table 1). The Northwest deposit contains 5 Mt at 37.4 % Fe and 32.32 % TiO₂, and the Cliff deposit 8.4 Mt at 39.2 % Fe and 33.9 % TiO₂. Since 1950, QIT has extracted an estimated 60 Mt of ore at 38.8 % Fe and 33.6 % TiO₂.

Among the other known deposits in the area, the most promising ones are the Grader (which was mined in 1950 for a short period), Springer, and Lac-au-Vent. All these deposits and smaller showings are composed of massive ilmenite dykes emplaced in the andesine-bearing anorthosite. One exception worth mentioning is the Big Island deposit. This deposit is composed of a rutile and sapphirine-bearing massive ferrian ilmenite dyke with fragments of oxide-rich norite and anorthosite. Rutile can be as high as 15 modal %. Typical grab samples collected for assays gave values of 26 % FeO, 21.1 % Fe₂O₃, 40.3 % TiO₂, 3.12 % MgO, 0.36 % V₂O₅, 4.35 % Al₂O₃, and 6.26 % SiO₂ for a sapphirine and rutile-bearing ilmenitite, and 29.1 % FeO, 29.8 % Fe₂O₃, 38.9 % TiO₂, 2.99 % MgO, 0.39 % V₂O₅, 1.54 % Al₂O₃, and 0.91 % SiO₂ for massive ilmenitite. The dyke is 15 m wide and outcrops over 500 m.

Other Fe-Ti deposits of interest that are associated with mafic layered complexes in the Grenville Province include the massive and disseminated titaniferous magnetite layers associated with an olivine-bearing layered gabbro in the Raudot Complex (Fig. 10) and the ilmenite-apatite-magnetite deposit of the Canton Arnaud in the Eocambrian Sept-Îles Layered Complex (Fig. 10). In the latter, the oxide mineralization is present in nelsonite layers and associated magnetitite layers in the upper part of the lower layered series (Cimon and McCann, 2000). Detailed work by SOQUEM on the deposit has given proven and probable reserves of 107 Mt at 6.2 % apatite and 8.4 % TiO₂. Other small titaniferous magnetite deposits in mafic igneous complexes are also known in isolated intrusions or closely related to anorthosite suites (Table 1).

The Paleoproterozoic Kaniapiskau sediments and metavolcanics of the New Quebec Orogen (Labrador Trough) extend southward, increasing from low to high metamorphic grade (greenschist to granulite facies) and forming the Gagnon terrane (Fig. 1A, Fig. 5), known also as the Gagnon Group (Clarke, 1968, 1977). These metasedimentary sequences host the Wabush-Lac Jeannine iron ore belt, notably the Mont Wright iron mine, where the ore has strongly benefited from metamorphism, as well as the Lac Knife and Lac Guéret graphite deposits (Gross, 1996, p. 62-67; Docherty et al., 2004). Most of the iron formations are found in the Sokoman Formation in the Labrador Trough. These iron formations are referred to as taconite (Gross, 1996). South of the Grenville Front, the Wabush Formation is the metamorphosed equivalent of the Sokoman Formation of the Labrador Trough (Fig. 1A, Fig. 5; Neal, 2000). Typically the Wabush Formation is subdivided into three members with the Lower member composed of carbonate-silicate facies with minor oxides, the Middle member with oxide facies with specular hematite, minor magnetite and sugary textured quartz and the Upper member composed of carbonate-silicate facies with minor oxides (Fig. 12; Neal, 2000). The Middle Wabush Member is the most important and included the bulk of the quartz - specular hematite - magnetite and quartz - magnetite - specular hematite ores that are mined.

These rocks have been deformed during the Paleoproterozoic, forming the New Quebec Orogen, and deformed and metamorphosed during the Grenvillian orogeny. The superposition of these events resulted in an extensive thrusting and folding that produced a variety of structural interference patterns (Roach and Duffel, 1974). What was originally a continuous belt of the iron formations with quartzite, calcareous and dolomitic carbonate and shales is now a dismembered belt of folded and oval shaped iron ore bodies associated with quartzite, calcitic and dolomitic marbles, calc-silicate rocks and aluminous and graphitic paragneiss distributed, in a NE-SW trend, over 300 km in the Gagnon terrane.

The metamorphic grade increases NE to SW from greenschist facies close to the Grenville Front in the Wabush Lake area to upper amphibolite - lower granulite facies in the southern part of the Gagnon terrane near Manicouagan Reservoir (Clarke, 1977; Klein, 1978; Rivers, 1983b). Metamorphism of the Paleoproterozoic taconite resulted in a coarsening of the grain size of quartz and iron oxides (hematite and magnetite) and distributed the later in the coarse-grained quartz matrix. The breakdown of iron carbonates and their reactions with silica-rich minerals produced magnetite and Fe-rich amphiboles (actinolite, cummingtonite and grunerite) or Fe-rich pyroxene in the more metamorphosed facies (Klein, 1978; Gross, 1996). The positive effect of metamorphism and deformation has been to refold the iron formations to reach several hundreds of meters in structural thickness, concentrate the iron oxides in fold hinges and increase grain size. These iron deposits reach hundred millions tons but are lower grades (25 to 45 % Fe) than typical secondary residual iron ores. The iron ore is easy to separate from its friable gangue minerals and produces, by gravity or magnetic separation, a high-grade iron concentrate of 66 to 67 % Fe (Gross, 1996; Neal, 2000).

Since 1959, several deposits have been mined or are mined today by Iron Ore of Canada (IOC) and Wabush Mines in the Wabush Lake area and by Quebec Cartier Mining, at the Mount Wright, Fire and Jeannine lakes. IOC mined iron ore at the Humphrey mine, and recently at the Mount Luce mine, which grade 40 to 42 % Fe compared to 35 % Fe for the Scully Mine (Wabush Mines) and 32 % Fe at Mount Wright Mine (Fig. 13; Quebec Cartier Mining Co.). Together, these deposits represent several billion tons of reserves and resources of specular-hematite and magnetite ore. These companies have already mined out over two billions tons of ore at a grade of 32 to 42 % Fe since 1959. Several other deposits, known since the early 1950's, in the Mount Wright area and in the southern part and western part of the Gagnon terrane, east and west of the Manicouagan Reservoir, represent potential ore reserves such as the Bloom Lake, Mount Reed and Peepler Lake deposits.

Massive zinc sulphide orebodies of the Balmat-Edwards-Pierrepont mining district, located in the NW Adirondack Lowlands of northern New York State, were deposited about 1.3 Ga ago in a sequence of evaporate-bearing siliceous and dolomitic marbles of the Grenville Supergroup. The ore bodies and their host dolomitic marble and calc-silicate rocks were metamorphosed to upper amphibolite facies and polydeformed. Ore remobilization can be spectacular (de Lorraine and Dill, 1982; de Lorraine, 2001, personal communication, 2005). An overturned isocline of the second phase of folding, notably the Sylvia Lake syncline, hosts the Balmat ore bodies. Anhydrite of evaporitic provenance flowed largely into the Sylvia Lake fold hinge and the large ductility contrasts between anhydrite and the calc-silicate units led to the development of axial planar macrofractures that evolved into tectonic slides. Conformable massive sphalerite-pyrite-quartz lenses and layers contained within three stratigraphic units probably served as the loci for development of some of the minor or parasitic folds and the tectonic slides associated with the main syncline. Sphalerite was extremely mobile during peak metamorphism (650-700ºC and 6.5 kb) and locally flowed from the massive sulphide "parent" bodies into thin but extensive, crosscutting "macrofractures" at points where macrofractures happened to transect the parent bodies. Spectacular excursions or remobilizations of "daughter" ore into macrofractures occurred locally with sulphide apparently flowing radially outward as far as 2 km away from source bed or "parent" ore masses. The bulk of remobilized sulphides remained within .5 to 1 km from the parent orebodies. In most places the original remobilized sulphide is monomineralic, coarse-grained, sphalerite. Recurrent deformation partitioned along macrofracture surfaces, still at high metamorphic grade, led to replacement of the original coarse-grained texture with "durchbewegung" texture that is characterized by admixtures of rounded inclusions of wall rocks in a fine-grained matrix of sphalerite and wall-rock grains. In a few places, enclaves of coarse-grained massive sulphides are preserved, attesting to the original nature of the remobilized sphalerite. The Balmat-Edwards deposit has inspired mineral exploration in the Grenville Province since the turn of the century.

The industrial minerals (apatite, feldspar, graphite, mica, and wollastonite), lode gold, VHMS, SEDEX, Ni-Cu magmatic sulphides and rare metals deposits of the Grenville Province and their close association with metasedimentary belts and AMCG or late granitic plutons anchor our collective view of the prospective settings of the Grenville Province (e.g. Jourdain et al., 1990; Sangster et al., 1992; Hébert, 1995; Clark, 2000, 2001a; Perreault and Moukhsil, 2003; Higgins et al., 2001; Vaillancourt et al., 2003). In contrast, the volcano-sedimentary and volcano-plutonic arc settings bound to have formed along the pre-Grenville Laurentian margin remain largely concealed among the gneiss terranes of the Grenville Province and unexplored even though they would be of interest for metamorphosed, non-traditional, arc-related mineral deposits (Gower et al., 1995; Blein et al., 2004; Corriveau and Bonnet, in press). Among the 21 mines and 52 quarries in production in Québec in 2004, five mines and 31 quarries were sited in the Grenville Province (Ministère des Ressources naturelles, de la Faune et des Parc web site). Of the 62 deposits listed in Eckstrand et al. (1996, Fig. 3A) for the Grenville Province, 23 are in Ontario and none are in Labrador. However, as pointed out by Gower (1992), Baltic shield metallogeny is strongly relevant to mineral exploration in Labrador and developments in terms of exploration of 1.7 to 1.5 Ga terranes in Norway, Sweden or Finland may be of interest to Canada.

Current knowledge of ore deposits, including metamorphosed and metamorphogenic ones, recent protolith studies in high-grade metamorphic terranes, and new research on continental-scale processes of metallogenic significance provide means of identifying geotectonic environments prospective for mineral deposits in the Grenville Province. They illustrate the fertility of upper amphibolite- to granulite-facies terranes, even for gold deposits, and contribute new vectors to ore settings that are bound to improve grass roots exploration effectiveness across the orogen (e.g. Geringer et al., 1994; Zaleski and Peterson, 1995; Spry et al., 2000; Large et al., 2001b; Tomkins and Mavrogenes, 2002; Tomkins et al., 2004; Bonnet and Corriveau, 2005). Government surveys and mineral exploration strategies capitalize on this knowledge 1) to reinvestigate extensions of the Superior Province into the Grenville, 2) to conduct targeted geoscience in frontier gneiss terranes that may host volcano-plutonic belts, 3) to revisit the potential of the high pressure belt for Ti deposits, and 4) to reinterpret continental-scale metallic zonation (Gauthier et al., 2004c). Moreover, sediment-hosted Zn deposits, well known from the southwestern Grenville Province (Gauthier and Brown, 1986; Sangster et al., 1992, p. 410-414), are being reassessed following new understandings of SEDEX deposits (Gauthier and Chartrand, in press).

Metallogenic districts and settings of the Southern, Superior, Churchill, and Makkovik provinces that extend from the foreland into the Grenville Province include the following (from west to east).

Rift-related PGE mineralized 2.49-2.44 Ga mafic intrusions such as East Bull Lake occur at the boundary between the Superior and Southern provinces (e.g. Vogel et al., 1998; James et al., 2002; Vaillancourt et al., 2003). They form a plutonic suite that extends eastward into the Grenville Province of Ontario (e.g. the 2.45 Ga River Valley anorthosite-gabbro intrusion; Easton, 2003b) and could further extend into Québec along the Grenville Front (Clark, 2001b). This setting is interpreted as related to a plume, which gave rise to the major Matachewan dyke swarm. By analogy, Clark (2001b, slide 36) points out that the area south of the 2.47 Ga Mistassini dyke swarm may also host such intrusions prospective for PGE mineralization. However, that area remains to date largely uncharted.

The Murray and Wanapitei faults of the Southern Province and their strong 1.70 Ga sodic-potassic alteration (Schandl et al., 1994) extend into the Grenville Province and are coeval with 1.75-1.70 Ga A-type granitoids (Davidson, 1998a, p. 218) and shearing and shortening of the Sudbury basin structures to the northwest (Bailey et al., 2004). This zone bears many similarities to the Central Mineral Belt of Labrador affected by polyphase transpression and intrusion of 1.74-1.71 Ga A-type granitoids (cf. Ketchum et al., 2002), and likewise is prospective for iron oxide Cu-Au mineralizations.

Archean greenstone belts extend into the Grenville Province and their units can either be directly correlated across the Grenville Front such as in the Chibougamau area (Daigneault and Allard, 1994; Cadéron et al., 2004) or they may have undergone severe disruption and metamorphism such as the mafic and ultramafic gneiss, paragneiss and volcanic-hosted massive sulphide prospects further to the northeast (Birkett et al., 1991; LaFlèche et al., in press). These extensions are prospective for Archean to Mesoproterozoic Cu-Ni-Co-PGE deposits, Archean volcanic-hosted massive sulphide deposits and Archean or Mesoproterozoic mesothermal gold deposits (Allard, 1978, 1979; Cadéron et al., 2004). However, most pre-existing ore bodies if present will be metamorphosed at amphibolite to granulite facies. In this context, the geological criteria and exploration strategies used to identify hydrothermally derived mineral deposit settings need to be adapted to the metamorphic environment. The field guide 'Atlas et outils de reconnaissance de systèmes hydrothermaux métamorphisés dans les terrains gneissiques' presents such an adaptation of criteria and strategies to the exploration and mapping of high-grade metamorphic terranes and review case examples such as the granulite-facies Archean Coulon greenstone belt of the Superior Province (Archer et al., 2004; Huot et al., 2004; Bonnet and Corriveau, 2005). Such strategies and criteria have been tested in uncharted gneiss complexes of the Grenville orogen and the results are summarized below in the section on arc-related prospective settings.

Seismic transects have unveiled significant Archean crust underlying the northwestern margin of the orogen, an outline of which is provided in Rivers (1997). Diamonds have been reported above such areas in Ontario and Québec.

The Paleoproterozoic Kaniapiskau sediments and metavolcanics extend southward into the Gagnon terrane (Fig. 1) and host the Wabush-Lac Jeannine iron ore belt discussed above as well as the Lac Knife and Lac Guéret graphite deposits (Gross, 1996, p. 62-67; Docherty et al., 2004).

The Makkovikian and Labradorian arc rocks of the Makkovik Province host several U deposits (Kitts-Michelin, Labrador; Gandhi, 1986) and, like the extension of Makkovikian rocks in the Baltic Shield (Weihed, 2001; Eilu et al., 2003), are extensively explored for IOCG deposits (Marshall et al., 2003). Rocks of the Makkovik Province extend in the Parautochthon and the area may also be of interest for IOCG exploration.

Worldwide, extensional and transtensional volcanic and plutonic arc settings are significant hosts to IOCG, VHMS Zn-Pb-Ag, VHMS Cu-Au, epithermal Au, porphyry Mo, Cu or Cu-Au, skarn, U, and lode Au deposits (e.g. Ohmoto, 1996; Corbett and Leach, 1998; Hitzman, 2000; Large et al., 2001a; Ferris and Schwarz, 2003; Sillitoe, 2003; Seedorff and Einaudi, 2004). The fertile crust produced through arc magmatism and their crustal-scale fault zones are critical elements in the development of post-collisional magmatic Ni-Cu-Co or Fe-Ti ores and hydrothermal IOCG deposits (Clark, 2003; Gauthier et al., 2004a, c).

At least four metamorphosed exhalative volcanic-hosted massive sulphide deposits are known in accreted arc terranes of the Grenville Province: the Montauban Au-Ag-Zn-Pb mine and Dussault prospect in the Portneuf-Mauricie domain, the New Calumet Zn-Pb-Ag-Au-Cu mine at the northern end of the Bancroft terrane and the Boudrias showing, near Grande Bergeronne south-east of Baie Comeau (Bernier et al., 1987; Bernier, 1992; Bernier and MacLean, 1993; Gauthier et al., 2004b). The presence of massive sulphides lenses in cordierite- and anthophyllite-bearing gneiss, quartz-rich rocks, calc-silicate rocks and coticule, their association with biotite quartzofeldspathic gneiss and amphibolite, and the geochemistry of these rocks indicate that these units are metamorphosed equivalents of alteration pipes and volcanogenic sulphides associated with mafic and felsic volcanic rocks. These deposits are metamorphosed under upper amphibolite conditions and represent remnants of volcanic activities in Mesoproterozoic volcano-sedimentary basins.

The New Calumet deposit was mined between 1942 and 1968 with a production of 3.8 Mt at 5.8 % Zn, 1.6 % Pb, 65 g/t Ag and 0,4 g/t Au. The Zn-Pb-Ag-Au ore forms massive sulphide lenses hosted by cordierite- and anthophyllite-bearing gneiss and leucocratic biotite gneiss with associated amphibolite and marble. The massive sulphide lenses are distributed conformably along a discontinuous thin marble unit structurally above a quartz-rich biotite gneiss (Villeneuve, 1988). The ore is composed of massive pods of sphalerite, pyrrhotite and galena as well as disseminated sulphides in the host rock. Altered rocks are closely associated with the ore and comprise calc-silicate rocks and biotite-rich gneiss. Structural control is important in the ore distribution.

The Tétreault deposit in Montauban has been mined intermittently between 1911 and 1965 with a production of 2.49 Mt at 6.68 % Zn, 2.27 % Pb, 1.13 g/t Au and 131.3 g/t Ag. The deposit consists of conformable lenses of massive Zn-Pb-Ag-Au ore and disseminated sulphides in a biotite-rich gneiss associated with cordierite-anthophyllite bearing gneiss, calc-silicate rocks and quartz-rich gneiss. These metamorphosed equivalents of hydrothermally altered rocks are associated with metamorphosed pillowed and massive basalts and metamorphosed felsic volcanic rocks (Bernier et al., 1987 and references therein).

The Dussault showing is composed of semi-massive Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag-Au ore (5.30 % Zn, 0.48 % Cu and 11.0 g/t Ag over 7.0 m, 5.48 % Zn, 0.36 % Cu, 0.35 g/t Au and 6.8 g/t Ag over 3.15 m; Ministère des Ressources naturelles, de la Faune et des Parc deposit files) hosted in a hornblende- and diopside-bearing calc-silicate rock. The ore zones and the host rocks are associated with orthopyroxene-bearing amphibolite, garnet-bearing quartzofeldspathic paragneiss, biotite quartzofeldspathic gneiss, aluminous gneiss (with garnet, sillimanite and cordierite), pyrite and cordierite-bearing quartzite, gedrite-orthopyroxene gneiss and phlogopite-sapphirine-corundum and gahnite-bearing schists. According to Bernier (1993), these lithologic assemblages are the upper amphibolite to lower granulite facies equivalent of volcanogenic sulphides and alteration zones associated with mafic and felsic volcanism. The ore zones are extremely deformed and the ore is concentrated in refolded hinges and in pencil shapes bodies along the limbs.

Upper amphibolite- and granulite-facies arc settings presenting alteration assemblages typical of IOCG, Cu-Au VHMS or epithermal Au deposits have also been identified in the 1.4 Ga Bondy Gneiss Complex and the 1.5 Ga La Romaine Supracrustal Belt (Fig. 1, Fig 5) while a lower grade setting occurs in the Bancroft terrane (Peck and Valley, 2000; Peck and Smith, in press). These and the 1.64 Ga felsic volcaniclastic (?) rocks of the Pitts Harbour Group with multi-element Cu-Au, Ag-As-Mo lake sediment anomalies (Fig 5; Gower et al., 1995) are considered prospective exploration targets.

The 1.4-1.35 Ga arc-related Bondy Gneiss Complex hosts an extensive but under-explored volcanic-hosted iron oxide Cu-Au hydrothermal system at granulite facies (Blein et al., 2003, 2004; Fu et al., 2003; Boggs and Corriveau, 2004; Wodicka et al., 2004). High MgO cordierite-orthopyroxene white gneiss and a series of garnet-biotite-sillimanite gneiss, locally with preserved lapilli textures (Fig. 14), and orthopyroxene-magnetite rich gneiss anomalous in Au occur next to well-laminated felsic gneiss and layered amphibolite. Together these units signal paleo-chlorite and argillic alteration zones within a felsic volcanic dome with interspersed mafic volcanic (lavas/sills?) rocks. These alteration facies grade into a series of garnetite rich in magnetite and chalcopyrite and garnet-biotite-sillimanite gneiss depleted in CaO and Na2O, then a few km to the south, into a sillimanite-quartz gneiss followed southward by biotite-rich garnetite and gneiss and a composite amphibolite unit with local zones of calc-silicate rocks, some mineralized in chalcopyrite. These zones respectively point to the presence of metamorphosed CaO-leached argillic, advanced argillic and potassic to sericitic alteration zones reaching a mafic unit, likely volcanic in origin (sensus largo) with calcic alteration zones and Cu mineralization. A 200 m long lens of tourmalinite, a few km north of the main alteration zones, indicates the presence of meta-exhalite distal to the main system.

Dissemination, network and layers (vein?) of magnetite concordant with the gneissosity occur over an area of 9 by 6 km irrespective of the rock types present and are interpreted to record a pervasive iron oxide alteration superimposed on the carbonate, argillic and chloritization alterations prior to metamorphism. The magnetite-rich units together with garnetite and calc-silicate rocks form the main hosts to Cu mineralization, whereas anomalous Au values were found in sillimanite-rich gneiss typical of metamorphosed high-sulfidation zones. The alteration zones share many hallmarks of those associated with Australian Proterozoic Cu-Au volcanic-hosted massive sulphide deposits (Large et al., 2001a). However, the Cu-Au mineralizations are associated with HREE, Zr and Hf enrichments and pervasive birdwing-shaped REE profiles whose distribution is decoupled from major element variations and signatures. The trace element behaviour implies rock interaction with reducing hydrothermal solutions enriched in ionic complexes, and large amounts of fluorine-rich fluids and suggests, with the influx of iron oxide, polyphase hydrothermal activity not unlike what is observed in many IOCG deposits (Corriveau, 2005).

The amphibolite- to granulite-facies gneiss complexes that lie between the 1.5 Ga Wakeham Group in eastern Quebec and the largely plutonic Pinware continental arc terrane of Labrador host at least two fertile, 1.5 Ga volcano-sedimentary intra-arc basins with hydrothermally altered and Cu mineralized felsic volcanic centres and sub-volcanic batholiths (Fig 5,Fig. 15; Corriveau et al., 2003; Bonnet and Corriveau, 2005, in press; Corriveau and Bonnet, in press). One of the basins extends from the Wakeham Group for 10 km and interesects the Lac Musquaro extension. The other basin to the south, the La Romaine Supracrustal Belt, is disconnected from the Wakeham Group but contains similar metasediments. This basin is sharply bounded and extends for more than 60 km parallel to a folded train of aluminous units that may outline another basin or an altered fault zone to the north (Fig. 15). The volcanic centres in the Musquaro extension and in the La Romaine Supracrustal Belt host coarse 1.50 Ga rhyolitic to dacitic pyroclastic rocks locally intruded by 1.49 Ga quartz-feldspar porphyries or associated with a composite amphibolite unit (lava and/or sill), mineralized in Cu, as well as with a series of nodular quartzofeldspathic gneiss, aluminous gneiss, garnetite, ironstone, carbonate-rich rock and calc-silicate rock. The latter units display distributions, parageneses and modes that significantly depart from those of normal metasediments (e.g. metapelite and marble) but that are diagnostic of metamorphosed exhalites and hydrothermal alteration zones (e.g. sericitic, argillic, advanced argillic, carbonate and iron oxide alterations). The preservation of lapilli textures demonstrates that precursors were at least in part volcanic in origin while abrupt changes in unit thickness and distribution of hydrothermal alteration and mineralization signal the presence of syn-volcanic faults. Sporadic mafic lapillis and magma mingling textures point to coeval mafic and felsic magmatism while the volcanic textures and the presence of acid alteration point to vesicular volcanism and hydrothermal activity in a sub-aerial to shallow submarine environment. The pervasive calc-alkaline signature of the eruptive and intrusive felsic to mafic rocks and their distribution is compatible with the development of 1.5 Ga intra-arc volcano-sedimentary belts stemming from the Wakeham Group basin and extending eastward among the Pinwarian continental magmatic arc.

The recognition of volcanic textures and metamorphosed iron oxide alteration in association with sericitization, chloritization, argillic and advanced argillic alteration zones typical of volcanic-hosted oxide or sulphide deposits and epithermal deposits is a vindication of mapping strategies developed to find metamorphosed hydrothermal settings in frontier gneiss terranes (Corriveau et al., 2003; Bonnet and Corriveau, 2005). However, many volcanic textures and structures would have remained undetected under normal mapping conditions even along exceptional shore exposures. This is particularly the case for pyroclastic units, originally mapped as arkoses, which need very low light conditions (cloudy or rainy days, very early morning) to highlight fragments or primary textures, which wetting outcrops on a sunny day would not produce. The results summarized above illustrate that gneiss complexes are not simply sterile roots of ancient arcs and continents but correspond to a buried juxtaposition of surface and near surface environments such as volcano-plutonic and volcano-sedimentary belts and their syn-volcanic fault zones and hydrothermal ore deposits (see Fig. 4). It also illustrates again, that units resembling metasediments in particular metapelites may be first order targets for the search of metamorphosed hydrothermal deposits in frontier terranes where such units are otherwise rare (Bonnet and Corriveau, 2005). This premise is not new, Gauthier et al. (1985) noted that sillimanite-rich units were a key mineral indicator for gold exploration while Allard and Carpenter (1988) provided a list of minerals whose unusual abundance and paragenesis formed a promising exploration tool in metamorphosed terrains. Still, widespread application of these tools from project implementation to field interpretation is rare. In this light, four other occurrences of unusual aluminous gneiss in Newfoundland and Québec are of interest.

Sodic sapphirine-bearing gneisses in the Indian Head Range inlier of Newfoundland signal widespread pre-metamorphic albitization of 'sediments' and occur with garnetiferous gneiss and dioritic gneiss locally rich in magnetite (Owen et al., 2003). The origin of this regional-scale albitization is unknown but offers a target for (IOCG?) exploration. To the north, in the Long Range inlier, cordierite-, gedrite- and sapphirine-bearing gneisses display anomalous enrichments of Mg and Al and are impoverished in Ca with respect to normal rocks. These features are typical of metamorphosed chlorite alteration zones, though other precursors are possible (Owen and Greenough, 1995; Owen et al., 2003). Nodular sillimanite gneiss and siliceous gneiss typical of metamorphosed sericitic to advanced argillic alteration zones also outcrop among quartzofeldpathic gneiss of uncertain origin and supracrustal rocks in the Baie de Brador area near Blanc Sablon (Fig. 1). The nodules form disseminations or trains that mimic boudinaged aluminous veins and are found adjacent to a siliceous gneiss (Fig. 16). These rocks can be traced for over 10 km. North of the Brador Fault, the nodular and siliceous gneiss are bounded by a sequence of graphitic aluminous (garnet+silimanite±cordierite) gneiss, containing discrete, deformed pyritiferous quartz veins, and a band of white quartzite, with biotite-garnet lenses (coticule ?), and locally with garnet-bearing amphibolites. These features share many characteristics of the sericitic and argillic alteration zones of the La Romaine Supracrustal Belt and Musquaro extension of the Wakeham Group as well as those of the IOCG Lyons Mountain setting in the Adirondack Highlands (Fig. 1, Fig. 17). This interpretation significantly differs from the original diatexitic model in Perreault and Heaman (2003) and builds on the new knowledge acquired by identifying metamorphosed hydrothermal settings as a means to open up new territories to mineral exploration (Bonnet and Corriveau, 2005). Finally, arkose units with sillimanite-quartz nodules have also been reported west of Musquaro Lakes in the Wakeham Group, some of which crop out in the vicinity of magnetite and molybdenite occurrences (Sharma, 1973; map unit 1). These units have not been revisited since the late seventies but descriptions bear striking similarities to the pyroclastic units at Musquaro Lake and their sericitic alterations.

Iron oxide copper-gold (IOCG) deposits comprise mono- to polymetallic low-Ti magnetite and/or hematite ore bodies of hydrothermal origin with more than 20% iron oxides. Hallmarks include potassic and calcic-sodic alterations, association with continental A- to I-type magmatism or alkaline-carbonatite stocks, and distribution along crustal-scale fault zones and splays. The margins of Archean cratons where arcs and successor arcs were developed appear to be particularly fertile. Recently, the setting of the IOCG deposit that guides exploration, the 3810 Mt Olympic Dam deposit in Australia (Hitzman et al., 1992; Western Mining Corporation, 2004), has been reinterpreted. The Hiltaba suite that hosts the Olympic Dam and the Gawler Range volcanics, which host the Prominent Hill deposit, form a very fertile ca. 1.59 Ga intracontinental back arc extensional setting (Skirrow et al., 2002; Ferris and Schwarz, 2003 and references therein; Belperio and Freeman, 2004), not an intracratonic, anorogenic setting (Lyons et al., 2004). The Olympic Dam deposit occurs within a doubly-vergent orogen directly above the intersection of a reflective crustal-scale ramp where it intersects the Moho and transects a non-reflective Moho and lower crust (ibid). These new data put an end to the anorogenic myth that Creaser (1996), Partington and Williams (2000) and Gandhi (2003) among others have disparaged for the last decade. Since metamorphosed IOCG deposits do exist (e.g. Aitik, Wanhainen et al., 2003), the search for IOCG deposits should encompass Grenville Province gneissic derivatives of continental intra-arc and back-arc terranes. Moreover, considering how uncharted some of these areas are, comparison of Lithoprobe signatures with those of the Olympic Dam transects may provide orogen-scale grass roots targets.

Three IOCG districts are currently known in the Grenville Province: the Manitou district with the Kwyjibo deposit and Marmont prospect in the eastern Grenville, the Lyons Mountain area in the Adirondack Highlands and the New-Jersey iron belt. These districts encompass a large spectrum of low-Ti magnetite and/or hematite rich breccias, veins, disseminations and massive bodies with polymetallic enrichments, especially Cu, Au, Ag, U and rare earths. Their deposits and prospects are genetically associated with large-scale, A-type granites, as well as with sodi-calcic alteration zones (e.g. Kwyjibo; Clark and Gobeil, in press), potassic alterations (Edison mine area, New-Jersey; Puffer and Gorring, in press) and argillic alterations (Lyons Mountain; Selleck et al., 2004). REE-bearing iron skarns are associated with alkaline granitic plutons in the Composite Arc Belt in Ontario (Easton, 1989), while calcic metasomatic fronts and veins in the syenite carapace of the potassic alkaline plutons of the Kensington-Skootamatta suite (Fig. 1; Corriveau, 1989) display similar habit and mineral assemblages to those of the REE prospects in the syenite carapace of the Eden Lake carbonatite complex in Manitoba (Mumin and Corriveau, 2004).

Also of interest with regards to the prospectivity of the Grenville Province are the iron oxide-REE deposits of the St. François Mountains, Missouri, US (Pea Ridge, Pilot Knob, Bourbon, Camels Hump, Katz Spring and Iron Mountain). Magnetite and hematite are associated with REE minerals (apatite, monazite, xenotime, bastnaesite and britholite) in breccia pipes (Seeger et al., 2001). The volcano-plutonic complex that hosts the deposits is coeval with the Pinwarian magmatic arc of the Grenville Province (e.g. 1473 ± 3 Ma; Van Schmus et al., 1996). Renewed volcanic, sub-volcanic plutonism and hydrothermal activity took place at 1.38 Ga with extrusion of rhyolite ash-flow tuffs and caldera collapse (Menuge et al., 2002).

The large-scale emplacement of A-type granitoids in the vicinity of major crustal-scale fault zones is a key element for the identification of prospective settings for iron oxide Cu-Au-U deposits. Among the A-type granitoid suites proximal to major fault zones are those of the New Jersey Highlands, one of the major IOCG districts in the Grenville Province (Volkert et al., 2000a). This episode of 1.1 Ga magmatism took place prior to 1.08-1.03 Ga granulite-facies metamorphism and represents the younger part of a 1.18 to 1.06 Ga A-type magmatic event across the Grenville Province. This setting is described in a subsequent section. Post-orogenic, 1.00-0.96 Ga, granites and related pegmatites of the Hudson and New Jersey Highlands are associated with magnetite-U-REE mineralization (e.g. Vassiliou and Puffer, 1985; Volkert, 2004b). This age interval corresponds to that of the post-orogenic granitoid hosting the iron oxide Cu-Au-REE Kwyjibo deposit in the eastern Grenville Province.

In the Adirondack Highlands, low-Ti magnetite deposits and occurrences abound, most of them hosted in the Lyon Mountain Granite (Friehauf et al., 2002). The deposits were formed through leaching of country rock and early-crystallized igneous rocks by circulating Na- and Fe-rich magmatic and surface-derived hydrothermal fluids (Foose and McLelland, 1995; McLelland et al., 2002). Na and K leaching of leucogranite by the acidic fluids formed veins of quartz-sillimanite that were disrupted by later magmatic flow (McLelland et al., 2002). Zircon ages constrain the earliest phases of hydrothermal activity as coeval with granite emplacement between ~1045 and 1030 Ma (Selleck et al., 2004).

The Kwyjibo deposit is a replacive, Cloncurry-type IOCG deposit with Cu, REE ± Y ± F ± Ag ± Mo ± Th ± U ± W ± Au ± Zr (Fig. 5; Perry, 1995; Perry and Roy, 1997; Clark, 2003; Gauthier et al., 2004a). It is located in the Canatiche Complex of the eastern Grenville Province in Québec. Eight main prospects have been identified: the Josette, Malachite, Andradite, Fluorine, Grabuge, Lingis, Livaivre, and Rodrigue. The main polymetallic stage comprises chalcopyrite, pyrite, fluorite, molybdenite and REE-bearing minerals in hydrothermal veins and stockworks (Fig. 17). A titanite age of 975 Ma has been obtained from a mineralized sample and is interpreted as the age of hydrothermal activity. Evidence of bimodal magmatism is observed at the deposit site. The main ore stage is superimposed on pre-existing (pre-1030 Ma), locally folded, massive, layered or brecciated tabular bodies or stockwork of magnetite ironstone replacing an 1175±4 Ma leucogranite along its fabric. The best drill intersections and surface data include the following at the Josette prospect: 1.83% Cu, 0.96% La+Ce+Sm, 654 ppm Th, 435 ppm U and 164 ppb Au over 9.5 m (channel sample); 0.36% Cu over 16.5 m and 0.88% La+Ce+Sm over 29.9 m (drill core). Coincident features include: 1) the presence of brecciated (pyroclastic?) rocks near the intrusive contact between a granite and its host quartzo-feldspathic gneiss of the Canatiche Complex, 2) the abundance of calc-silicate rocks in the vicinity of the prospects, 3) the local presence of metatonalite, 4) the presence of Sedex-type mineralization in the adjacent Manitou metamorphic complex, and 5) a distinct period of monazite growth between 1063 et 1047 Ma in the Manitou Complex. The latter is attributed to fluid-assisted deformation during tightening of fold structures (Wodicka et al., 2003) which may be coeval with the post-foliation replacement of leucogranite by magnetite ironstone and the local folding, tightening and shearing of the magnetite stockwork described by Clark (2003). The geodynamic setting is inferred to be an early ca. 1.5 Ga magmatic arc with renewed granitic magmatism at 1.1 and 1.0 Ga, in a successor back-arc extensional setting with major fault zones (see, Clark, 2003; Gobeil et al., 2003).

Major breaks in the Moho architecture occur south of the Grenville Front with crustal thickening on the Grenville Province side and teleseismic data show a potential, stranded subducted slab dipping northward within the cratonic lithosphere underneath the Archean greenstone belts (Rondenay et al., 2000). One of the marked changes in crustal thickness occurs where the Grenville front zone extends to the Moho and into the mantle southward along the Abitibi-Grenville seismic profile (Ludden and Hynes, 2000b). Above this zone, a large circular zone of very low reflectivity is observed in the lower crust. This combination of features is also present directly under the world-class Olympic Dam IOCG deposit in the Gawler craton of Australia (Lyons et al., 2004) and may indicate a particularly fertile crust at the southern end of the Cabonga terrane in the SW Grenville Province.

The post-Paleoproterozoic metasedimentary belts of the Grenville orogen host the world-class Balmat-Edwards Zn-sulphide deposit of the Adirondack Lowlands, the Franklin Furnace-Sterling Hill Zn-oxide deposits in New Jersey, the Lac des Îles graphite mine of the Central Metasedimentary Belt of Québec, as well as the past-producing Kilmar magnesite and Hilton and Marmora iron mines in Québec and Ontario (Fig. 1; Gilbert, 1959; Gross, 1967, 1996; de Lorraine and Dill, 1982; de Lorraine, 2001; Perreault, 2003a). All these deposits are found within the marble-rich segments of the Grenville Supergroup. Overall, the belts may be prospective for iron, SEDEX, Broken Hill-type, IOCG and Carlin-type lode gold deposits, as well as metamorphosed industrial minerals such as brucite, feldspar, garnet, kyanite, magnesite, graphite, phlogopite, rutile, sillimanite, talc and vermiculite.

In the Central Metasedimentary Belt of Québec, a marble-rich domain hosts several Zn sulphide and Zn oxide deposits associated with metamorphosed Zn-Mg siderite horizons and stratiform magnetite-bearing Zn-Mn marble units respectively (Gauthier, 1982; Gauthier et al., 2004b; Gauthier and Chartrand, in press). The area is prospective for marble-hosted McArthur-type SEDEX deposits, a type of Pb-Zn-Ag deposits known for having large tonnages of ore (Cooke et al., 2000). Paleo-environments share many hallmarks of the paleo-basins hosting the Balmat-Edward and Franklin-Sterling Hill deposits, but age correlations remain uncertain as discussed previously. McArthur-type mineralization reflects the presence of hot, oxidized salines fluids of evaporitic origin in a paleo-basin. Saline fluids of magmatic origin enhanced by fluids of evaporitic or meta-evaporitic origin are an important component of IOCG deposits (Marshall and Oliver, in press). A connection between these two types of deposits is also suggested by their proximity in existing mining districts, so much so that one of the empirical geological criteria to identify prospective IOCG settings is the presence of SEDEX deposits (Ray and Lefebure, 2000; Corriveau, 2005). This is also supported by the presence of the Manitou and Bottine SEDEX showings in the St-Jean domain next to the Kwyjibo deposit in the Canatiche complex (Fig. 1, Fig 18; Clark and Gobeil, in press). In the marble-rich domain of SW Québec, the historical Hilton iron mine can be reinterpreted as a Kiruna-type iron deposit suggesting that the domain may be prospective not only for SEDEX deposits but also for IOCG (see below). Moreover, a striking similarity exists between the Central Metasedimentary Belt of Québec and the Carlin-type gold deposits setting of Nevada: transition of marble-rich to quartzite-rich domains reflect deepening of a paleo-basin toward the paleo-continental margin in an intra- or peri-cratonic rift basin deposited on Laurentia (Gauthier and Brown, 1986, p. 110-111) or in a back-arc marginal basin setting (Rivers and Corrigan, 2000, p. 372), tectonic reworking including thrusting and subsequent extension (Harris et al., 2001, in press), long-lived NNE-SSW and E-W crustal-scale faults highlighted by the spatial distribution of Mesoproterozoic plutons and lamprophyre dykes and recent earthquakes in the western Québec seismic zone (Fig. 4 of Goodacre et al., 1993; Lamontagne et al., 1994; Morin and Corriveau, 1996; Corriveau and van Breemen, 2000) (cf. Cline and Hofstra, 2000; Yigit and Hofstra, 2003). These features may be worth considering as a new avenue for exploration.

The Hilton Mine, formerly known as the Bristol Mine, was a low grade but mid-size tonnage iron mine (43 Mt at 23 % Fe), located 70 km NW of Ottawa. Ore was composed chiefly of magnetite with some hematite, pyrite and pyrrhotite. It was considered, with the Marmora Mine (Hasting County, Ontario) and other iron mines and prospects in the Ottawa - Hull region, as typical iron skarns associated with contact metasomatism related to emplacement of igneous plutonic suites (Gross, 1967, 1996). Re-examination of available data and a recent visit by the second author to the Hilton Mine indicate that the deposit displays characteristics of IOCG deposits. The magnetite ore occurs as veins and tabular sheets of massive magnetite in a biotite-bearing pink granite at the contact with dolomitic and calcitic marble, impure quartzite, biotite-bearing paragneiss and amphibolites of the Grenville Supergroup. The magnetite ore and associated skarns (pyroxene, amphibole, epidote, K-feldspar and chlorite) and metamorphic pyroxenite veins are closely related to emplacement of the biotite-granite (Wilson, 1926; Gross, 1967). The ore zone (~ 150 x 800 metres) appears to be conformable with the enclosing metasedimentary rocks. The ore consists of a heterogeneous mixture of amphibole- and pyroxene-bearing skarns with disseminated magnetite and massive magnetite veins and tabular sheets (Gross, 1967). Log journals indicate that most of the ore mined was located in the granite or at its contact with the country rocks, and that ore veins and tabular sheets were from a few meters to more than 50 meters in thickness. Mine wastes and available outcrops (the mine is now flooded) show veins, pods or shoots of massive magnetite, magnetite-rich rock with amphibole and hematized K-feldspar and disseminated magnetite in amphibole-bearing skarns cutting biotite-bearing gneiss (paragneiss or metamorphosed alterations?), granitic gneiss and amphibolite. Decimetre to metre sized blocks of biotite-rich schists with green amphibole and late chlorite point to zones of potassic alterations. Massive cm-wide magnetite veins and late-fractures filled with hematite and lesser amount of magnetite were observed in the granite on the wall of the flooded open pit (see also Deland, 1959; Gross, 1967). These features signal a large intrusion-related hydrothermal system with iron ore and sodi-calcic and potassic alterations of country rock characteristic of IOCG deposits.

In New Jersey, Grenville Supergroup quartzofeldspathic gneiss, marble and calc-silicate rock host IOCG, graphite and zinc oxide deposits and overlie (structurally?) a calc-alkaline volcanoplutonic belt inferred to be ca. 1.3-1.25 Ga in age and to belong to a continental magmatic arc (Puffer and Volkert, 1991; Volkert et al., 2000b; Volkert, 2004a). The Edison magnetite deposits comprise magnetite-quartz layers with variable concentrations of K-feldspar, biotite, garnet, sillimanite and apatite, and some zones of disseminated sulphides (magnetite, bornite, ferrian ilmenite, chalcopyrite, covellite, pyrite, and molybdenite). They are associated with potassic alterations and gneisses recently reinterpreted as hydrothermally altered felsic volcanic and/or pyroclastic rocks (Puffer and Gorring, in press). The zinc oxide Franklin-Sterling Hill deposits formed through precipitation of zincian carbonates, oxides, and silicates from oxidized and H2S-poor brines in a shallow marine basin with evaporites (Volkert et al., 2000b; Johnson and Skinner, 2003). A ca. 1.12 Ga rift environment, with volcanic and sub-volcanic intrusions, is invoked as the paleo-environment for the variety of ore deposits in the area. The volcano-sedimentary package would have been deposited shortly before or nearly coevally with the emplacement of 1.12-1.09 Ga A-type granitoids along crustal-scale fault zones either during collisional orogenesis or in an anorogenic environment related to the Mid-Continental Rift (Volkert et al., 2000b; Puffer and Gorring, in press). If this age is correct, then the metasediments cannot belong to the same basin as the metasediments of the Central Metasedimentary Belt of Québec in which a 1.28 Ga tonalite intrusion has been found. Nevertheless, the paleo-environments may be similar.

Graphite deposits in the New Jersey area are hosted by similar Mesoproterozoic rocks as those hosting graphite deposits in the Reading Prong area in Pennsylvania and in the Adirondack Highlands (Volkert et al., 2000b). They also share similarities with those that host the Lac des Îles graphite mine in the Central Metasedimentary Belt of Québec (Fig. 19). In this deposit, the graphite mineralization is hosted by a garnet-biotite gneiss in contact with a dolomitic marble and a quartzite. The deposit contains 7.42 % graphitic carbon and is characterized by large crystalline graphite flakes. Again, the coeval nature of the sedimentary sequence is uncertain due to the lack of U-Pb geochronology for the metasedimentary belts of the Grenville Province.

An older likely Pinwarian metasedimentary package, the Manitou Metamorphic Complex of the St-Jean domain, hosts the Manitou and Bottine showings where SEDEX-type sulphide mineralizations were remobilized during Grenvillian metamorphism and deformation. Two generations of mineralization are recognized: 1) a copper-silver and zinc-copper mineralization associated with a biotite-bearing quartzofeldspathic gneiss and 2) a copper-silver mineralization associated with calc-silicate rocks and late deformation (Perry and Raymond, 1996; Clark, 2003). The main mineralized zones occur in a 3 to 8 meter thick layer of quartzofeldspathic gneiss that can be followed over 350 meters. The first generation of mineralization consists of two zones of Cu-sulphides (chalcopyrite and bornite) and a zone of chalcopyrite, sphalerite and galena disseminated in the biotite-bearing quartzofeldspathic gneiss. In this host, the sulphide contents can be as high as 10 % but the sphalerite was difficult to detect in the field because it resembled titanite. Results of 1.98 % Cu over 1.7 m and 3.86 % Cu, 13 g/t Ag and 300 ppb Au for a grab sample were returned for the copper mineralized zones. Grab samples for the zinciferous mineralized zone returned values of up to 6.26 % Zn and 2.80 % Cu (Clark, 2003). The second generation of copper mineralization is associated with calc-silicate layers, interpreted as metamorphosed alteration zones, and also along thin veins of chalcopyrite-bornite-pyrite discordant to the gneissosity, suggesting a post-ductile deformation. According to Clark (2003) the later copper mineralization postdated the gneissic and mylonitic fabrics of the quartzofeldspathic gneiss but predated or was synchronous with the second event of deformation observed in the area. The origin of the mineralization is interpreted to be of a SEDEX type with later remobilization as epigenetic sulphides associated with post-D1 or post-ductile deformation and associated alteration (Clark, 2003).

Another supracrustal belt of interest is the arc-related Paleoproterozoic granulite-facies sapphirine-bearing Disappointment Lake unit in the Wilson Lake terrane of Labrador (Thomas et al., 2000; Gower et al., 2002). This unit is characterized by a very high positive aeromagnetic anomaly associated with titanhematite- and magnetite-rich felsic and aluminous gneisses and metamorphosed iron oxide lenses up to ten metres in thickness, as well as iron oxide-dominant aluminous veins (Kletetschka and Stout, 1998; Korhonen and Stout, 2004). The iron oxide lens locally crosscuts gneissosity. These rocks comprise abundant coarse-grained magnetite coexisting with titanhematite, exsolved titanhematite in orthopyroxene, exsolved hematite in sillimanite, and high Fe3+ in sillimanite and corundum, providing a record of high fO₂ (Korhonen and Stout, 2004). The most distinctive unit is described as sapphirine + quartz and orthopyroxene + sillimanite + quartz restitic layers in the paragneiss. This association of felsic, aluminous and ferruginous gneisses has, like many others, been interpreted as series of ferruginous metasediments and restites, and the unit is formally named the Disappointment Lake paragneiss (Arima et al., 1986; Thomas et al., 2000). Alternative interpretations include a lateritic origin for the aluminous gneiss (Leong and Moore, 1972) and a metasomatic origin for the crosscutting iron oxide lenses (Currie and Gittens, 1988). Considering that these units bear striking similarities with those resulting from pre-metamorphic hydrothermal sericitic and iron oxide alterations of volcanic rocks in the Bondy Gneiss Complex and the La Romaine supracrustal belt. An alternative is that the area was subjected to severe iron oxide and sericitic alterations and that this strong oxidation zone constitutes an exploration target for IOCG deposits. For example, if the Olympic Dam, Prominent Hill and Ernest Henry deposits were metamorphosed to granulite facies (Belperio and Freeman, 2004), paragneiss-like units such as those of the Disappointment Lake unit would result and the Cu-Au-U deposits may have escaped recognition. The area has only attracted mild economic interest in the eighties (Currie and Gittens, 1988) and warrants new investigations in light of the current knowledge of IOCG and ironstone-hosted gold deposits.

The Grenville Province was the focus of major Cu-Ni exploration programs from 1995 to 2000 with the discovery of the Voisey's Bay deposit in Labrador and the Lac Volant prospect in the Matamec complex (Perreault et al., 1997). However, most of the currently known Cu-Ni deposits (Renzy and Edouard mines, McNickel showing) of the Grenville Province are of low grade (< 1% Ni and < 1% Cu). Richer ones, such as the Lac Volant prospect in the Matamec complex, are limited in size. In contrast, significant PGE mineralization is found within the 2.49-2.44 Ga mafic intrusions in the Grenville Front area of Ontario (e.g. Vaillancourt et al., 2003). Synthesis of Ni-Cu and PGE mineralizations in the Grenville Province can be found in Wilson (1993), Clark (2000, 2001a), Thériault et al. (2003), and Vaillancourt et al. (2003).

Copper, nickel, cobalt and PGEs are found mainly in three deposit types. The first one consists of Cu-Ni dominant (±Co±PGE) magmatic deposits associated with mafic to ultramafic and anorthosite intrusions. The Cu-Ni sulphides occur as disseminated grains in mafic-ultramafic rocks, as semi-massive sulphides with magmatic textures, as net veins of sulphides or as massive sulphides lenses at, or close to contact of the mafic-ultramafic host rocks with supracrustal country rocks. Examples of this type include:

The second type of deposits consists of magmatic-hydrothermal PGE dominant (±Cu±Ni) deposits associated with mafic to ultramafic intrusions (Wilson, 1993; Jobin-Bevans, 2002; Thériault et al., 2003). PGE minerals and sulphides are usually disseminated in the ultramafic facies of these intrusions although lenses of semi-massive sulphides and breccia zones can be present. Examples of this type include the Dana Lake and Lismer's Ridge deposits within the River Valley intrusion, the Lac-Nadeau showing in the Mauricie-Portneuf domain and the Lac Mitaine showing in the Hart Jaune terrane.

The third type is composed of remobilized magmatic Cu-Ni sulphides and epigenetic Cu-Ni mineralizations (Fig. 21). Magmatic Cu-Ni sulphides are remobilized during high-grade metamorphism and concentrate in sulphides-rich veins or in sulphides-rich lenses along the gneissosity. Epigenitic Cu-Ni sulphides occur as veins along ductile or brittle shear zones and are found in both the metamorphosed mafic-ultramafic intrusions and in the adjacent supracrustal rocks. Examples of these types include the B30 showing, north of Baie-Comeau, the 2EZ showing in the Hart-Jaune terrane, the Lobster Bay showing in the Pinware terrane and a gossan zone in the Saint-Augustin Complex. Tha latter is composed of iron hydroxide, hematite with pyrite, pyrrhotite, minor chalcopyrite and pentlandite. The fresh mineralized samples are composed of massive pyrrhotite and pyrite with minor chalcopyrite and pentlandite. This showing is an example of magmatic sulfides emplaced at the contact zone and remobilized by tectono-metamorphic processes.

Many of the mafic intrusions of the Grenville Province are characterized by steep layering and foliation. Steep igneous layering in layered intrusions is most common in marginal border zones and is attributed to sidewall crystallization or to sinking due to tectonism (e.g. Loney and Himmelberg, 1983). In the metamorphosed terrains of the Grenville Province, pervasive steep layering in gabbro and anorthosite intrusions tend to be interpreted as tectonically transposed through tilting or folding of classically layered intrusions in which layering is originally mostly horizontal. Case-examples illustrating the modes of magma emplacement and accumulation of sulphide ores in mafic and ultramafic sills, layered intrusions and feeder dykes abound in the literature, including those of Grenville Province reviewed in Clark (2000 and references therein). These are complemented herein by a brief discussion of syn-tectonic sheet-like intrusions, vertically layered mafic intrusions and collapse mafic-silicic layered intrusions that are less common and can easily be interpreted either as metamorphic gneiss or as tectonically transposed igneous bodies. These types of mafic intrusions may bear traps for magmatic sulphides that are distinct from those associated with 'simple' gravitational settling of magmatic sulphides in classical 'anorogenic' mafic layered intrusions. A discussion of such intrusions is warranted by the presence of the Lac Volant massive sulphide prospect in a dyke associated with the Matamec mafic-silicic layered intrusion and of the Grand-Remous ultramafic breccia Ni-Cu prospect in a syn-tectonic mafic sheet intrusion.

Syn-tectonic mafic intrusions can take the aspect of gneissic rocks since emplacement is commonly accompanied by the mingling of mafic and felsic magmas, crystalsorting, repeated injections of magmas, formation of striking magmatic foliation or recrystallization of the early formed crystals while residual magmas were percolating to form veins along adjacent shear zones (Fig. 22). Through these various processes, igneous rocks acquire strong magmatic to solid-state foliations, compositional layering and in some cases equant grain size that resemble granoblastic textures and gneissosity but are in fact key markers of syn-tectonic magmatic and post-magmatic structures and textures (Vernon, 2000). Recognizing that Ni-Cu mineralization is associated with such styles of intrusion may help refine exploration strategies in the long term.

Vertically-layered intrusions displaying systematic subvertical modal layering, igneous foliation, erosional troughs and surfaces (Fig. 23), contact-parallel, crude, concentric, subvertical layering are distinct from tilted or folded classically layered intrusions in which layering was originally mostly horizontal (e.g. the Musquaro intrusion; Corriveau et al., 2002). Tilting cannot be responsible for systematic subvertical layering of circular stocks, especially not for cylindrical igneous foliation pattern. In such cases, verticality of layering is primary, and likely a result of sidewall crystallization in a sub-vertical magma conduit. In such intrusions, gravitational traps for magmatic sulphides will be down and parallel to layering not across it as if it verticality of beds was a result of tectonic transposition. A primary origin for vertical layering should be considered before applying the classic genetic model of mafic-layered intrusion to explore those that are layered vertically.

The dyke that hosts the Lac Volant Ni-Cu prospect intrudes a mafic intrusion of the Matamec mafic-felsic complex roughly parallel to sub-vertical internal contacts and foliation of the intrusion (Perry and Roy, 1997). Intrusive sheets, magmatic and solid-state foliation and intraplutonic shear zones of the complex are steeply dipping and parallel to each other at the local scale but define a major synformal structure dissected by some major thrust faults at the scale of the complex (Chevé et al., 1999; Gobeil et al., 1999). These authors interpret the folding to have occurred after emplacement of the Lac Volant dyke during regional metamorphism. Unfolding the intrusion implies that the Lac Volant dyke was originally subhorizontal (Clark, 2003; Nabil et al., 2004). An alternative interpretation is that the internal verticality of the structure resulted from infolding during the collapse of a mafic-silicic layered intrusion (Fig. 24; Saint-Germain and Corriveau, 2003) following the model of Wiebe and Collins (1998). This interpretation is based on field evidence that the mafic and felsic intrusive sheets were formerly horizontal based on sedimentary-like magmatic structure observed between the mafic (dense) and felsic (lighter) magmatic sheets (Fig. 25). Inferred polarities are consistent with infolding of the Matamec Complex (Saint-Germain and Corriveau, 2003). The late-stage mafic dykes would have brought up magmatic sulphides along the western flank of the Matamec intrusion and across its synformal fold hinge after collapse and would represent vertically emplaced feeders to overlying magma chambers. The type of traps for magmatic sulphides in mafic-silicic layered intrusions is uncertain but may offer alternative exploration targets to horizontally layered intrusions.

Molybdenite deposits are common in the Central Metasedimentary Belt and are hosted in pegmatite-related skarns (Halo, Hunt, Spain, and Zenith deposits), skarnoid rocks (Liedke, Kirkham, and Bain deposits), and apatite-calcite vein-dykes (Kirkham, Que.), as well as in molybdenite-bearing 1.05 Ga pegmatite-aplite bodies (Moss deposit) (Lentz and Suzuki, in press). The pegmatite intruded Grenville Supergroup metasediments after peak metamorphism or, for the Moss deposit, an A-type syenite intrusion that may mark the late stages of the Kensington-Skootamatta potassic alkaline suite (Lentz and Creaser, in press). A review of the Quebec mineral deposits files shows that most molybdenite mineralization in the Grenville is associated with late-tectonic granitic pegmatites (the molybdenite occurs as disseminated grains associated with the quartz-rich part of the pegmatites). Other occurrences consist of disseminated molybdenite in granitic leucosomes of migmatized paragneiss (these occurrences have no economic value) and as disseminated molybdenite, locally concentrated in small pockets, in sulphide-bearing calc-silicate rocks.

Skarn-type Cu-Ag±W±Au mineralization is commonly observed among calc-silicate rocks associated with calcitic / dolomitic marble and paragneiss, and felsic intrusions in supracrustal belts of the Grenville Province. The origin of this type of mineralization is commonly related to circulation of fluids associated with the emplacement of felsic plutons in the supracrustal hosts. In most cases, mineralization is remobilized by tectonometamorphic processes. In some cases, it is metamorphogenic in origin with no clear relation to felsic plutonism. One of the best examples of copper skarn mineralization occurs in the L'Ascencion Metamorphic Suite at the northeastern end of the Central Metasedimentary Belt of Québec. About eight showings and two prospects have been discovered (Nantel, 2003; Ortega, 2003; Nantel et al., 2004). Copper sulphides (bornite, chalcocite, chalcopyrite, digenite), and associated iron sulphides (pyrrhotite and pyrite), occur as disseminated grains in small veinlets or in centimeter-size pockets in calc-silicate rocks (mainly in diopsidite) and in the associated marble and paragneiss. Sulphide contents rarely exceed 10 % with copper grade rarely exceeding 1 % and silver values up to 5 ppm (Nantel et al., 2004). The best results came from the Watson (1.88 % Cu, 21 g/t Ag, 24 ppm Mo), the Lac d'Argent (3.88 % Cu and 3.9 g/t Ag) and the Lachabel (12 %, 9.5 % W, 16 g/t Ag and 0.04 % Bi) prospects (Ortega, 2003). The Lachabelle prospect consists of pyrite - pyrrhotite - chalcopyrite ± scheelite in centimeter to meter size lenses or pockets of massive sulfides associated with amphibole - scapolite zones at the contact of calc-silicate rocks, marble and paragneiss with a granodiorite-granite orthogneiss (Fig. 26). These gneisses are cut locally by pegmatite (Ortega, 2003). Disseminated iron and copper sulphides are also reported in the calc-silicate rocks.

The Grenville Province has been extensively explored for uranium since the late 1950's. Radiometric maps published by the GSC in the late 1950's and 1960's combined with a demand for uranium in this period of the Cold War generated vast programs of uranium exploration in the Grenville Province during the mid 1960's, the mid 1970's and in the mid 1980's. Since 2003, the rise of uranium prices has been accompanied by renewed interest for uranium. Occurrences of uranium and thorium mineralizations are common and associated with biotite and magnetite-bearing pink granitic pegmatites. Though the potential for conglomerate-type or sandstone-type uranium deposits (e.g. Elliot Lake and Arthabasca Basin types) exists in parts of the Grenville Province that have only seen lower greenschist facies metamorphism (e.g. the Wakeham Group), most of the exploration is oriented at the Rossing-type of uranium mineralization associated with felsic intrusives in supracrustals terrains. The recent recognition of uranium-bearing IOCG mineralization and metallogenic environments in the Grenville Province opens new prospects for uranium exploration in this orogen.

Examples of uranium mineralization in the Grenville Province include: 1) uranium oxides and phosphates associated with late orogenic granite and pegmatites (e.g. the Central Metasedimentary Belt in Québec and the Lac Turgeon granite in the eastern Grenville Province; Baldwin, 1970; Hauseux, 1977; Gauthier et al., 2004b); 2) local concentrations of uranium and thorium oxides associated with magnetite in confined layers of quartzofeldspathic gneiss (meta-arkose) (Baldwin, 1970; Hébert, 1995); 3) uranium oxides and REE-bearing minerals in carbonatite and alkaline complexes, e.g. the Quinville and Cantley carbonatites (Hébert, 1995); 4) iron oxide Cu-REE-U mineralization such as the Kwyjibo deposit (Clark, 2003, Gauthier et al., 2004a); and late secondary remobilizations along fractures.

Industrial minerals have played a major role in the mining economy of the Grenville Province since the late 1850's. They were first mined in the Central Metasedimentary Belt and the Morin terrane, close to economic centres such as Montréal, the state of New York and New England. Today, economic resources in terms of industrial minerals for Quebec, SE Ontario and New York State lie within this geological province. Due to its geological and metallogenic diversity, in particular high-grade metamorphism of sedimentary rocks, mafic and felsic magmatism, and pre-metamorphic hydrothermal activity, the Grenville Province hosts a large number of industrial mineral deposits containing apatite, mica, feldspar, magnesite, brucite, graphite, talc, ferrian ilmenite and dimensional stones that were mined or are still mined today (Jacob and Nantel, 1990; Jacob and Bélanger, 2001; Perreault, 2003a). The large amount of anorthositic rocks that serve as hosts to the large deposits of ilmenite as well as labradorite, which is a favourite dimensional stone, is in fact unique in the world. Silica in metamorphosed quartz-rich sediments and quartz veins

Prospecting and mining for high-grade silica started in Québec as early as the mid 1850. Originally, mining for silica-rich sandstones was primarily for the glass industry. Increasing demand for ferro-silicium and silicium metal used in the electronic industry and in smelters (such as in aluminium plants) since the 1950's orientated mining exploration for high-purity silica in the quartzite bands of the Grenville Province. High-grade quartz vein deposits, mined in the past are now depleted.

The Petit Lac Malbaie quartzite deposit, located some 120 km north-east of Québec City, consists of a 100 metres wide quartzite band that extends more than 900 m in length. The quartzite is coarse-grained, massive, white and very pure, except for some zones that contain lenses or layers of reddish quartzite. The pure white quartzites (>99.5 % SiO₂; 0.10-0.25 % Al₂O₃; 0.02-0.03 % Fe₂O₃) are selectively quarried to produce lump-silica for silicium metal. Lump-silica for ferro-silicium and silicon carbide sands are also produced from this quarry. North of Montreal, quarries of coarse-grained crumbled white quartzite, containing up to 5% kaolinite, are mined to produce coarse sands for sandblasting and silicon carbide. The original rock is presumed to be a feldspathic quartzite that underwent post-Grenvillian laterization where K-feldspar was transformed into kaolinite.

In the Gagnon terrane, the Wapustagamo Formation host large deposits of grey to white coarse-grained quartzite. Two deposits are presently mined, one in Labrador, where the quartz is used to produced silicium metal and one near Fermont, which produces quartz granules.

Several other bands of quartzite associated with different supracrustal belts of the Grenville Province have been prospected for high-purity quartz deposits. However, few of them have the necessary chemical grade for chemical or metallurgical silica. Most of these deposits form irregular bands of few meters to several hundred meters of thickness that can be traced for kilometres (Jacob and Nantel, 1990).

Graphite and alumino-silicate deposits in quartzofeldspathic gneiss in supracrustal belts

Graphite commonly occurs as crystalline flakes and veins in high-grade metamorphic rocks of the Grenville Province. Since 1870, many graphite deposits were mined in the Ottawa River region, SW Quebec and SE Ontario, in the western part of the Grenville Province. Most of the graphite was mined from veins but some disseminated graphite deposits in paragneisses, marbles or wollastonite-bearing calc-silicate rocks, were also exploited (Simandl, 1989).

A crystalline flake graphite deposit is mined by Timcal Graphite (formerly Stratmin Graphite) at Lac-des-Iles near Mont-Laurier since 1989. The graphite mineralization is hosted by a garnet-biotite paragneiss in contact with a quartzite. In 1989, mineral resources were estimated at 25 Mt with inferred reserves of 5.2 Mt with 7.42 % graphitic carbon. The deposit is mined by open pit. The graphite ore is transported to a nearby treatment plant that can produce more than 25 000 tons of graphite flakes concentrate annually.

The well-known iron formations that are mined in the Fermont area are associated with biotite-garnet-kyanite bearing paragneiss and quartzofeldspathic gneiss that host numerous graphite deposits. These include the Lac Knife deposit found in 1959 (Murphy, 1960). The deposit is located 35 km south of Fermont and is accessible by a dirt road. The graphitic ore is hosted by biotite-bearing quartzofeldspathic gneiss and consists of disseminated fine- to medium-grained graphite flakes with local massive zones of coarse-grained flakes. Locally, the graphite content of the gneiss can reach up to 30 %. Inferred and proven reserves were calculated at 8.5 Mt with 16.7 % graphitic carbon. Recently, prospecting SW of the Manicouagan Reservoir has led to the discovery of a large flake graphite deposit in rocks similar to the Lac Knife deposit. The Lac Gueret graphite deposit is hosted by biotite-bearing quartzofeldspathic gneiss forming an extension of the Gagnon terrane SW of the Manicouagan Resevoir (Docherty et al., 2004).

The Grenville Province offers the best geological environment for commodities such as aluminosilicates (kyanite, sillimanite and staurolite). The Lac Croche kyanite deposit (geological resources at 4,5 Mt at 20 % kyanite), located 40 km south of Fermont, offers the best chance of development for aluminosilicates on a long term basis (Hébert, 1993). The kyanite is hosted by aluminous garnet-bearing gneiss of the Gagnon Group. In the Temiscamingue area kyanite was mined for several years in the 1960's. Kyanite forms centimetre-size crystals associated with quartz-rich lenticular zones in biotite and garnet-bearing aluminous gneiss (Jacob and Nantel, 1990). Mg-industrial minerals in dolomitic and calcitic marbles

Three main occurrences of high-purity dolomitic marble deposits are found in high-grade metasedimentary belts of the Grenville Province:

Relicts of Paleo- to Mesoproterozoic carbonate platforms, these pure dolomitic marbles occur mostly as bands or lenses decimeters to several meters in thickness (rarely exceeding 100 meters) that are associated with calcitic marble, calc-silicate rock and paragneiss. The deposits vary greatly in shape, quality and dimension. They are white on fresh surfaces (mostly black on weathered ones) and usually coarse grained. Serpentine, diopside, tremolite, clinohumite, and occasionally spinel are found in variable amounts in these dolomitic marbles (Jacob et al., 1991).

Québec's only producer of high purity dolomite quarried a dolomitic marble deposit near Portage-du-Fort. The deposit is composed of alternating 15 to 100 meter wide bands of pure white coarse-grained dolomitic marble, alternating with silicate-bearing dolomitic and calcareous marble. In Ontario, one quarry of high-purity calcium carbonate is mined from calcitic marble. Dolomite from dolomitic marbles is currently mined in SE Ontario to produce magnesia and magnesium. Other deposits of pure dolomitic and calcitic marbles are known in different supracrustal belts of the Grenville Province. However, few of them have the grade, the whiteness (for high-purity calcium carbonate), the sufficient tonnage, or the proximity to markets to be economically viable mining operation.

Brucite was mined between 1941 and 1968 north of Ottawa. Ore containing 29 to 34 % brucite was mined from three deposits (the Carswell, Cross, and Maxwell mines). The ore bodies contained bands rich in medium-sized to large granules of brucite and were hosted in dolomitic and calcitic marbles of the Grenville Supergroup (Jacob et al. 1991). The origin of brucite is not clear. One interpretation is that brucite was formed during re-hydration after peak metamorphism of periclase-bearing dolomitic marble.

Magnesite was mined continuously between 1913 and 1993 in and near Kilmar, mid-way between Montreal and Ottawa. Five deposits were exploited by open pit and underground mining methods. In 1993, after 80 years of operation, the Kilmar mine was closed due to ore depletion. The magnesite ores occurred as irregular lenses of magnesite-rich dolomitic marble (30-70 % magnesite) in contact with diopside-rich, calc-silicate rocks. The area is characterized by widespread, retrograde serpentinization and metasomatism, and by veins of brucite, talc, and chrysotile. Zn mineralization has recently been discovered in this deposit.

Talc is mined in the Madoc area, Ontario since 1896 and in the Adirondacks, New York (Talc Gouverneur mine). The talc deposits are associated with dolomitic marble and interpreted to have formed by the circulation of hydrothermal fluids reacting with siliceous and dolomitic rocks. The hydrothermal fluids may have been generated by the emplacement of granite, with faults or shear zones serving as channelways (Simandl and Paradis, 1999).

Wollastonite deposits are found within calcitic marble close to or in enclaves in anorthosite or mangerite massifs of AMCG suites. The Willsboro deposit in the Adirondacks in New York State is the largest wollastonite deposit mined in North America. Other deposits are known in the Adirondacks of New York, in the Lac-Saint-Jean area (the Saint-Ludger-de Milot, a former mine) and in the Laurentian, north of Montreal, around the SW edge of the Morin Anorthosite Massif (Jacob and Nantel, 1990). Apatite and phlogopite in skarn associated with pegmatite

In the Ottawa River region, apatite and sheet mica was produced from phlogopite deposits that are associated with diopside-rich calc-silicate rocks (pyroxenite). In most deposits, phlogopite is associated with apatite and occurs in veins, as fracture filling or along contacts between the diopside-bearing calc-silicate rocks and pegmatite. Pink calcite is commonly present. The deposits are small, irregular in shape and have an erratic distribution (Jacob et al., 1991). Mica and feldspar associated with pegmatites

Many sheet-mica mines were active in the central and western part of the Grenville Province from 1880 to 1950. Most of the production was concentrated in the Ottawa River region and in the Bergeronnes Township on the Quebec North Shore.

Near Grandes-Bergeronnes, 200 km NE of Quebec City, muscovite was mined from lens-shaped, usually concordant, tourmaline-bearing granitic pegmatites that were emplaced in aluminous paragneiss and in quartzite. Some of the pegmatites are unusually rich in muscovite. Muscovite was concentrated in pockets at the contact between quartz-rich and feldspar-rich zones or at the contact between the pegmatites and the country rock. Two varieties muscovite were mined: a pale green to transparent one, and the other being ruby coloured. The latter one closely resembles the famous Indian ruby mica (Hoadley, 1960).

Feldspar, mostly pink and white microcline, was mined from granitic pegmatites cutting Grenville Province supracrustal rocks. Meter-sized feldspar crystals were found in many of the mines. At the Villeneuve Mine, located north of Ottawa, workers found a mica crystal weighing 127 kg and measuring 76 by 56 cm. The mine was well known for its high-grade feldspar (used in dental care), its white peristerite, and its large tourmaline crystals. More than 200 feldspar mines were active in Quebec and Ontario between 1920 and 1970. The most productive were the Back Mine (1925-1927) and the Derry Mine (1961-1970). In the 1950s, east of Havre-Saint-Pierre, Spar-Mica Ltd opened five quarries and spent millions of dollars on a new and innovative electromagnetic separation plant. However, due to contamination and technical problems, the plant was shut down in 1959 after only three years of operation. Mica in ultramafic rocks

The only active mica mine in Québec, the Bédard mine (Letondal), is located in the Parent area about 300 km north of Montréal. The deposit occurs in a peculiar ultramafic rock, known as suzorite. The suzorite is composed mainly of phlogopite with some percentage of diopside, tremolite, hornblende and apatite and minor amounts of K-feldspar and plagioclase (Rondot, 1964; Lee, 1972). The Bédard deposit contains inferred and proven reserves of 27 Mt with 80 to 85 % phlogopite; it has a length of 792 metres, a width of 275 m and resources were inferred to a depth of 182 meters. Rutile in eclogitic rocks and in metasomatized rocks

The presence of metamorphosed anorthosite at eclogite facies, such as those outcropping north of the Manicouagan Reservoir, may represent good targets for rutile deposits. The metamorphism of ferrian ilmenite and ilmenite mineralizations associated with anorthosite and gabbroic rocks can lead to the formation of rutile deposits (Korneliussen, 2003). Metasomatism of ilmenite-bearing gabbroic rocks and metasomatism related to regional-scale hydrothermal circulation of fluids associated with emplacement of anorthosite massifs can also produce rutile deposits (Force, 1991). However, although such examples do occur in southern Norway, these deposits are unknown in the Grenville (Korneliussen, 2003).

The current synthesis of mineral deposits and districts across Canada highlights the largely barren nature of the high-grade metamorphic terranes of the Grenville Province in terms of large mining camps and significant mineral deposits. Only three active base metal mines for several millions of square kilometres of rocks raises some serious questions. Is the Grenville Province a mostly sterile geological entity in terms of base and precious metals? Were the appropriate metallogenic models not applied or are models developed for other metallogenic environments not necessarily applicable to the Grenville geology? Was not enough money spent to efficiently search for potential mineral deposits? For example, volcano-plutonic belts with felsic magmatism are key targets for the search for base, precious and strategic metals in Canada and worldwide. Where such terranes are intensely metamorphosed and transformed into gneisses but form the extension of a known metallogenic district at lower grade, gradual transposition and metamorphic transformation of the metallogenic district markers can be documented and vectors to ore can be adapted lowering significantly the risk to exploration. In contrast, risk in exploring similar settings in frontier, largely uncharted, gneissic terrains remains high as primary volcanic textures, easily recognized in weakly metamorphosed terrains, become lost or difficult to identify. A consequence is that recognition of volcanic belts among gneissic terrains remains a challenge.

To be effective, mineral exploration needs to be anchored on modern geoscience knowledge database and guided with the most adequate strategies and metallogenic models. In the Grenville Province, protolith studies combined with technological breakthroughs have provided novel avenues to improve understanding of the pre-metamorphic nature of this gneiss- and granitoid-dominated orogen. Though techniques construed as 'modern' such as SHRIMP analysis, expert systems analysis, crustal seismic profiling are necessary, it all starts with a much more 'traditional' method constantly improved by process-oriented research: FIELD WORK! With modern strategies and adequate funding, a few field seasons would suffice to reassess the nature of gneissic domains currently construed as sterile. A prime example is the discovery of the Cu-Ni Lac Volant prospect and other Cu-Ni and Cu-Zn showings during a regional mapping project in the St.-Jean domain (Perreault et al., 1997). What was initially a four-unit map area became a series of maps with intricate settings that range from those hosting SEDEX mineralization to those hosting magmatic Ni-Cu-Co and IOCG mineralization, prospects and deposits, opening a huge territory to exploration. A more recent case is the reassessment of the nature of 600 km2 of metasediments (sic) of the former La Romaine domain as a fertile continental arc plutonic belt with intra arc rift-related volcano-sedimentary packages hosting Cu-sulphides and Fe-oxides mineralizing systems. The recognition of such systems can lead explorationists tackling lesser-known metallogenic environments to the discovery of important prospects and, if sufficient money is spent and the proper knowledge acquired for applying the right metallogenic model, this may lead to the discovery of a deposit.

Many geologists involved in mineral exploration see high-grade metamorphism and ductile deformation as destructive events that can even volatilize sulphides. Although metamorphism can be destructive in some cases, it never volatilizes sulphides. In fact, it can significantly improve the value of a deposit through grain coarsening, recrystallization of ore minerals into purer end-members of higher metallurgical values, and concentration of sulphides in structural traps. We would probably not mine the iron ores in Labrador City and Mount Wright in Labrador and Québec without the ore beneficiation effect of metamorphism on the Paleoproterozoic taconite.

Traditional markers developed in and for the recognition of prospective settings in Archean greenstone belts change aspects once metamorphosed at high grade. Both sulphide or oxide mineralizing hydrothermal (and hydrothermal-magmatic) systems are commonly associated with the development of significant alteration zones. Fluid-rock interaction leads to severe element loss or enrichment, which can dramatically change the composition of the host volcanic or plutonic precursors. Being able to recognize hydrothermal alterations zones at an early stage of mapping is essential to future discoveries. So is the understanding of the style of magma emplacement in potentially fertile, non traditional, mafic and mafic-felsic intrusions.

The Grenville Province is a key geological province for industrial minerals. In addition to increasing awareness of the prospectivity of metallic resources for previously uncharted geological domains, applying a metallogenic approach to the search for new industrial mineral resources may significantly broaden the impact of future geological ventures within the orogen. A good knowledge of geological environments is paramount to the efficient targeting of industrial mineral exploration and will result in a decrease in exploration risk and associated gains in terms of time and money. Prospectors and geologists alike need to further their knowledge of the industrial mineral market, keeping an open eye on the use of minerals in the industry.

The Grenville Province is one of the most accessible orogens in Canada but remains under-explored, surrounded by an aura that few orogens have. It is the Grenville Problem: a sterile land too complex and too risky for mineral exploration. Disparaged as a sterile root of a collisional orogen, the high-grade metamorphic terranes of the province are more and more recognized as a complex juxtaposition of Andean-type volcanic and plutonic arc environments, a concept that has direct applications for revisiting the exploration prospectivity of the orogen. Archean, Paleoproterozoic and Mesoproterozoic surface and near surface volcano-plutonic magmatic arc, intra-arc rift and island-arc settings share characteristics of VHMS, IOCG, epithermal gold, porphyry Cu and, orogenic gold environments. The back-arc settings, the platformal sedimentary basins and the within-plate orogenic to late- or post-orogenic mafic and felsic intrusions provide targets for Carlin-type and SEDEX deposits, magmatic Ni-Cu-Co sulphides, PGE, Fe-Ti, Fe-Ti-V-P, and rare metals, as well as for a variety of industrial minerals and architectural stones. However, many 1.7-1.6 Ga Labradorian, 1.5 Ga Pinwarian and 1.3-1.2 Ga Elzevirian arc components still remain concealed among the large tracts of undifferentiated gneiss complexes. Magmatic Ni-Cu-PGE targets are also expected in some of the uncharted terrains and significant traps for magmatic sulphides are still to be discovered in orogenic and late-orogenic mafic and anorthositic intrusions.

Knowledge gaps are numerous, starting with basic geology across large segments of the province and adequate vectors to ore in high-grade metamorphic rocks and in orogenic intrusions. In addition, new exploration paradigms are emerging from recent mapping and research and the knowledge gaps that disparage exploration can be remedied through integrated grass roots fieldwork, second-generation mapping, efficient and pertinent 'pinkstone-belt' targeted mapping and exploration strategies, and state of the art multidisciplinary research programs. Exploration targets are already available in settings similar to those hosting Broken Hill Pb-Zn, VHMS-Cu-Au, Olympic Dam IOCG and Voisey Bay Ni-Cu deposits but, to result in ore discoveries, the specificity of metamorphic 'pinkstone belts' and ore settings in syn-tectonic intrusions needs to be taken into account. This will, in some cases, require the development of alternative models to the now classic ones derived from decades of successful exploration in greenstone belts and anorogenic plume- or rift-related magmatic settings. We argue that deposits may be overlooked in the 'pinkstone belts' first, because there is significantly less exploration being conducted and less knowledge acquired than those associated with decades of extensive exploration in the large mining camps of the Archean greenstone belts. Secondly, when exploration is being conducted, greenstone belt tools, models and views are used and these may not be adequate for mineral exploration of Proterozoic pinkstone belts. Industries are spending a great deal of money on research in the industrial mineral field including on the use of different minerals from those currently exploited and their products. However, a mineral that is not commercially used today may become the most widely used in the future. This is what happened with ilmenite in the 20th century. The same is true for exploration territories in the future. Will the pinkstone belts of the Grenville Province do in the 21st century what the greenstone belts did in the 20th: significantly sustain rejuvenation and replenishment of Canadian mineral resources? If so, do we currently have the knowledge required to make proper assessments for the sustainable development of such terrains?

The authors wish to thank A.-L. Bonnet, T. Clark, N.G. Culshaw, A.P. Dickin, M. Gauthier, C. Hébert, M.R. LaFlèche, B. Magrina, D. Morin, W.H. Peck, J.H. Puffer, O. van Breemen and their co-authors for providing access to preprints of their papers for a special volume as well as colleagues and Friends of the Grenville, in particular T. Clark, A. Davidson, W. de Lorraine, M. Easton, C. Gower and J. Stout for sharing public-domain information and personal knowledge of the Grenville Province. A. Davidson is further thanked for providing figure 1A stemming from his compilations of Grenville Province geology for the IGCP-440 Rodinia project. W. de Lorraine kindly provided text for the Balmat-Edward deposits and M. Downe the picture of Fig. X. Many thanks also to Wayne Goodfellow and John Lydon, GSC Mineral Synthesis project leader and co-leader.

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