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The Prevention and Children Committee of the National
Crime Prevention Council is developing a strategy to
help create better opportunities for children from the
prenatal stage to six years of age. High-quality and
consistent nurturing combined with a secure, physically
and emotionally safe environment through childhood will
improve each child's prospects of success in life and
make it less likely that they will later be victimized
or become offenders.
This fact sheet is one component of the Committee's
work. For more information, call the National Crime
Prevention Council at:
National Capital Region: (613) 941-9306
Outside NCR (Toll- Free): (877) 302-6272
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The Challenge of Crime Prevention
We are living in a time of uncertainty in Canada and uncertainty
can breed fear. One responsible way to address fear is to
become better informed. Our heightened sensitivity to violence
and crime, particularly among youth, provides us with a golden
opportunity to consider and discuss the risk factors that
influence long-term criminal behaviour or victimization.
There are compelling reasons to think about crime prevention.
In economic terms we pay for policing, the courts, correctional
services and property damage. The cost of detaining a young
offender has been estimated to be a minimum of $100,000 per
year.1
Victims of crime suffer physical damage and emotional traumas
that can last a lifetime. And we are increasingly experiencing
the insidious social costs of crime: feelings of mistrust,
fear and vulnerability.2 These social costs
may be more damaging than the threat of crime itself.
The years from the prenatal stage through age six are critical
to healthy child development. Addressing childhood problems
in a constructive way involves supporting the family and enhancing
the development of children.3
The National Crime Prevention Council is publishing this
summary of risk factors in order to raise awareness of the
kinds of conditions that can have a negative effect on the
development of young children and possibly lead them to later
criminal behaviour or victimization. We hope that knowing
what danger signals to look for will help Canadians respond
in more appropriate ways. This knowledge may allow us to improve
the lives of children, prevent crime and help alleviate the
climate of fear that affects our quality of life.
Overview of Risk Factors
There is no single root cause of crime. Exposure to risk
factors does not cause criminality. Rather, risk factors work
together over time to influence the likelihood of criminal
behaviour or victimization. The longer the exposure to risk
factors, the greater the likelihood.4
It has been found that risk factors multiply in their effects
rather than simply cumulating. For example, in one study,
children who showed only one risk factor were at no greater
danger than those who showed none. However, when two or more
risk factors were present, the likelihood of developing social
and academic problems was four times greater.5
Manifestations of Difficult Behaviours
in Boys and Girls
Disruptive and antisocial behaviours manifest themselves
in different ways over the developmental lifespan of a given
child. For example, a baby with a difficult temperament may
develop into a hyperactive child who, at a later age, may
become withdrawn.6
Much of the work on delinquency focuses on boys. Boys are
considered by some to be more likely to "act out"
(externalize) their emotional problems by engaging in antisocial
or delinquent behaviour. Many girls, on the other hand, are
thought to respond passively. They internalize their difficulties
by becoming depressed, anxious and socially withdrawn and,
are thought to be at risk of becoming revictimized.7
A recent study found that aggressive adolescent males were
more likely than aggressive females to have had a court appearance
(45.5% v. 3.8%). The aggressive females in the study, however,
became pregnant at a rate two to three times greater than
that of the general population.8 A follow-up
study found these mothers to be unresponsive parents and their
children slow to develop, thereby placing them at high risk
and perpetuating the cycle of disadvantage.9
Biology and Predisposition
The central nervous system matures during the early childhood
years. Anything that interferes with brain development and
causes neurological damage can lead to conduct disorders and
the inability to succeed at school. These two factors, unless
effectively addressed, may lead to later criminal behaviour.
- Consumption of alcohol during pregnancy may cause long-term
neurological damage in children that can result in hyperactive
behaviour, learning disabilities and an inability to interact
normally in a social milieu.10
- Poor nutrition/low birth-weight, poor attachment to a
caregiver and too much stress can cause significant neurological
damage leading to behavioural disorders that include learning
disabilities and mental retardation, as well as emotional
problems.11
- Exposure to neurotoxins, such as lead, can result in easily
distracted, hyperactive children who cannot follow simple
instructions.12
Some children may be born with a temperament that predisposes
them to disruptive behaviour. There may also be genetic underpinnings
to behavioural disorders.
Poverty
There is considerable discussion in the literature about
the role of poverty in influencing criminal behaviour and
victimization. Some studies suggest that the degree of poverty
is a reliable indicator of the likelihood to offend.13
Others have found that the problem is not so much poverty,
but the fact that poverty brings with it a host of associated
risk factors.14
- Poverty contributes to the likelihood of low birth-weight
babies and overall poor health and nutrition.
- Poverty is also associated with reduced opportunities
for children to form warm, secure attachments with caregivers.
- Family stress stemming from the instability of unemployment
and illness, as well as a lack of social supports, can have
adverse effects.
- Children born into poverty are at greater risk of being
abused and may fail to master social skills.15
- The school performance, emotional adjustment and skill
development of poor children has been found to be significantly
weaker than middle-class children.
In 1991, 1.2 million Canadian children lived in poverty;
over half a million of these children were under the age of
seven. Canadian families headed by women totaled 10.7%, or
787,113. Almost one-half of all lone-parent families headed
by women live in poverty.
Statistics show that of the children under the age of seven:
- 89% who belong to families where the mother has never
married are poor;
- 81% who live with a single mother are poor;
- 38% who live with a single father are poor; and
- 13% who belong to couple families are poor.17
Parental Disagreement
Exposure to parental discord (such as conflict, disharmony
and lack of agreement between partners) heightens the risk
for conduct disorders and leads to increased risk of early
offending. 18
Family instability of this kind can cause children to mimic
the confrontational behaviour of their parents and/or cause
high levels of stress within the child. It may also result
in inconsistent discipline of children.19
Some research suggests that girls respond to distress by
internalizing their problems.21 Passive
response patterns may put children at increased risk for becoming
the targets of those who deal with their problems through
aggression.22
Parenting Skills
The underlying common denominator in raising socially competent
children appears to be the emotional availability of their
parents.23
Two strong predictors of delinquency are
- poor parental supervision and
- harsh, erratic discipline.24
Other parenting styles linked to conduct disorders are
- inconsistent
- incoherent
- extremely severe or
- too permissive methods of discipline.25
Parental Behaviours
Research shows that two major factors that lead to antisocial
behaviour on the part of parents and in turn significantly
influence delinquent behaviour in children are
A study of boys' behaviour showed that parents who lack behavioural
management skills and who have antisocial tendencies may intentionally
or unintentionally convey these examples to their children.
The boys from these homes were thought to be at greater risk
for involvement with deviant peers where more serious forms
of antisocial behaviour are learned, practiced and shaped.27
There is clearly a link between a family's alcohol, drug
abuse or mental health problems and youth involvement in illicit
drug use and delinquency/crime.28
Family Violence, Abuse and Neglect
Child victims of violence may be at risk for delinquency,
crime and violent criminal behaviour; this is particularly
the case for males.29 For example, boys
who witness their fathers beating mothers are at higher risk
for becoming violent husbands.
Weak parent-child attachment or rejection of a child by a
parent can destroy the child's sense of security within the
family and undermine the ability to trust. This can prevent
the child from developing healthy social skills and may influence
the development of violent patterns of behaviour.
Children who suffer from parental neglect are particularly
vulnerable to television violence. Television has been found
to be among the risk factors for aggressive tendencies and
antisocial behaviour such as suicides, homicides, other crimes
and distorted perceptions. There is, however, some discussion
as to the strength of the relationship and its applicability
to all cultures.
Youth who are sexually and/or physically abused experience
many difficulties and are at greater risk for drug use and
delinquency/crime.
97% of children in custody in Ontario were found to have
suffered abuse at the hands of a trusted authority figure
(parent, relative, teacher) and typically had other stressors
in their lives.<
A 1992 study conducted by the Correctional Service of Canada
found that almost one-half of male inmates had been abused
as children (physical, sexual, psychological, neglect) or
had witnessed family violence.
An independent study of incarcerated women revealed that
eighty-two per cent of women in provincial prisons had been
physically or sexually abused.
The Impact of Risk Factors in Early
Childhood
Disruptive behaviours that go unaddressed in early childhood
can block or inhibit the ability of a child to learn to socialize
in school and with peers. The result can be rejection by peers
and academic failure which, in turn, can cause depression
and involvement with deviant peers. The earlier the development
of this pattern, the greater the likelihood of persistent
delinquent behaviour in youth.
This is not a comprehensive description of all of the risk
factors facing children under the age of seven, but it does
attempt to capture those most frequently addressed in the
literature.
Other risks that may warrant further consideration are:
- lack of adequate, inexpensive housing
- lack of accessible, quality childcare
- illiteracy
- lack of time to be with children
- isolation from the community, family and school
- inadequate community facilities
- cultural alienation
- racism, sexism, discrimination and the destruction of
cultural identities
- the promotion of ideas and attitudes, mainly by the media,
that are sources of violence, discrimination and intolerance
Endnotes
- Ontario. Children at Risk, Standing Committee
on Social Development (Toronto: Legislative Assembly, July,
1994).
- John Howard Society of Alberta
- David A. Wolfe, Christine Wekerle, and
Robin McGee, "Developmental Disparities of Abused Children:
Directions for Prevention" in Ray DeV.Peters, Robert
J. McMahon and Vernon L.Quinsey (eds.) Aggression and Violence
Throughout the Life Span (Newbury Park, CA:Sage, 1992),
pp.31-51.
- Rolf Loeber, "Risk Factors and the
Development of Disruptive and Antisocial Behaviour in Children"
in Forum on Corrections Research, 3, 1991, pp.22-28.
- Carnegie Corporation of New York, Starting
Points: Meeting the Needs of Our Youngest Children (Abridged
Version) (New York: Carnegie Corporation of New York, 1994).
- Loeber.
- William R. Avison, "Risk Factor for
Children's Conduct Problems and Delinquency: The Significance
of Family Milieu", Paper presented at the American
Society of Criminology Annual Meeting (London, Ontario:
University of Western Ontario, 1992) and
- Lisa A. Serbin, Patricia L. Peters, Valerie
J. MeAffer and Alex E. Schwartzman, "Childhood Aggression
and Withdrawal as Predictors of Adolescent Pregnancy, Early
Parenthood, and Environmental Risk for the Next Generation"
in Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 1991, 23(3),
318-331.
Lisa A. Serbin, Debbie S. Moskowitz, Alex E. Schwartzman
and Jane E. Ledingham, "Aggressive, Withdrawn, and
Aggressive/Withdrawn Children in Adolescence: Into the Next
Generation" in D. Pepler & K.H. Rubin (eds.) The
Development and Treatment of Childhood Aggression (Hillsdale,
N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1991).
D.R. Offord, J. Last and P.A. Barette, "Comparison
of school performance, emotional adjustment, and skill development
ofpoor and middle-class children" in Canadian Journal
of Public Health (1985) 76:174-178.
D.R. Offord, J. Last and P.A. Barette, "Comparison
of school performance, emotional adjustment, and skill development
ofpoor and middle-class children" in Canadian Journal
of P blic Health (1 985) 76:174-178.
- Serbin, Peters et al.
- Canada. Foetal Alcohol Syndrome: A Preventable
Tragedy, Standing Committee on Health and Welfare, Social
Affairs, Seniors and the Status of Women, (Ottawa: Supply
and Services, June 1992).
- Carnegie Corporation.
- Loeber.
- David Farrington, "Implications
of Longitudinal Studies for Social Prevention" in "Canadian
Journal of Criminology, Vol.31 No.4, 1989, pp.6-10.
- Richard Dembo, Linda Williams, Werner
Wothke, James Schmeidler and C. Hendricks Brown, "The
Role of Family Factors, Physical Abuse, and Sexual Victimization
Experiences in High-Risk Youths' Alcohol and Other Drug
Use and Delinquency: A Longitudinal Model" in Violence
and Victims, Vol.7 No.3, 1992, pp.245-266 and,
K.A. Dodge, G.A. Petit and J.E. Bates. "Socialization
mediators of the relation between socioeconomic status and
child development problems" in Child Development 65(2),
1994, pp.649-665.
- P.D. Steinhauer, "Primary Prevention
Strategies for Disadvantaged Populations" in The Health
Needs of Disadvantaged Children and Youth: Proceedings of
the Ninth Canadian Ross Conference in Paediatrics. Canadian
Paediatric
- Canadian Institute of Child Health. The
Health of Canada's Children, 2nd edition. (Ottawa: CICH,
1994).
- D.M. Fergusson, L.J. Horwood and M.T.Lynskey,
"Family Change, Parental Discord and Early Offending"
in Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiat Vol.33 No.6,
1992 and
N.I. Rae-Grant, B.H. Thomas, D.R. Offord, D.R. and M.H.
Boyle, Risk, Protective Factors, and the Prevalence of Behavioral
and Emotional Disorders in Children and adolescents. Journal
of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,
28(2):262-268, 1989 and
William J. Reid and Alida Crisafulli, "Marital Discord
and Child Behaviour Problems: A Meta-Analysis" in Journal
of abnormal Child Psychology, VoL 18 No.], 1990, pp. 105-117.
- Barbara Modlin, Review of Family Factors
Influencing Juvenile Delinquency, Report submitted to the
National Crime Prevention Secretariat, March, 1995.
- Avison and Reid.
- Avison.
- Serbin, Peters, et al.
- Avison.
- Modlin.
- John Howard Society of Alberta.
- Modlin.
- Thomas J. Dishion and Jovonna Poe, "Parent
Antisocial Behaviour as an Antecedent to Deviancy Training
among Adolescent Boys and their Peers", Paper presented
at the annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology
(Eugene, Oregon: Oregon Social Learning Centre, 1993).
- Dembo, et al.
- Cathy Spatz Widom, "The Cycle of
Violence" in Science, v. 244, 14 April 1989.
Bibliography
William R. Avison, "Risk Factors for Children's Conduct
Problems and Delinquency: The Significance of Family Milieu",
Paper presented at the American Society of Criminology Annual
Meeting (London, Ontario: University of Western Ontario, 1992)
Canada. Foetal Alcohol Syndrome: A Preventable Tragedy, Standing
Committee on Health and Welfare, Social Affairs, Seniors and
the Status of Women, (Ottawa: Supply and Services, June 1992)
Canada. Scientific Knowledge About Television Violence. Andrea
Martinez. (Ottawa: Canadian Radio and Television Commission,
1991)
Canadian Institute of Child Health. The Health of Canada's
Children, 2nd edition. (Ottawa: CICH, 1994).
Carnegie Corporation of New York, Starting Points: Meeting
the Needs of Our Youngest Children (Abridged Version) (New
York: Carnegie Corporation of New York, 1994)
Richard Dembo, Linda Williams, Werner Wothke, James Schmeidler
and C. Hendricks Brown, "The Role of Family Factors,
Physical Abuse, and Sexual Victimization Experiences in High-Risk
Youths' Alcohol and Other Drug Use and Delinquency: A Longitudinal
Model" in Violence and Victims, Vol. 7 No. 3, 1992, pp.
245-266.
Thomas J. Dishion and Jovonna Poe, "Parent Antisocial
Behaviour as an Antecedent to Deviancy Training among Adolescent
Boys and their Peers", Paper presented at the annual
meeting of the American Society of Criminology (Eugene, Oregon:
Oregon Social Learning Center, 1993)
K.A. Dodge, G.A. Pettit and J.E. Bates. "Socialization
mediators of the relation between socioeconomic status and
child development problems" in Child Development 65(2),
1994, pp. 649-665.
David Farrington, "Implications of Longitudinal Studies
for Social Prevention" in Canadian Journal of Criminology,
Vol. 31 No. 4, 1989, pp. 6-10.
D.M. Fergusson, L.J. Horwood and M.T. Lynskey, "Family
Change, Parental Discord and Early Offending" in Journal
of Child Psychology and Psychiatry Vol. 33 No. 6, 1992, pp.
1059-1075
P. Jaffem, D.H. Hurley and D. Wolfe, "Children's observation
of violence: I. Critical issues in child development and intervention
planning". Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, (1990)35:466-470.
John Howard Society of Alberta
Barbara Modlin, Review of Family Factors Influencing Juvenile
Delinquency, Report submitted to the National Crime Prevention
Secretariat, March, 1995.
National Crime Prevention Council Secretariat, Offender Profiles,
Sept., 1995.
D.R. Offord, J. Last and P.A. Barette, "Comparison of
school performance, emotional adjustment, and skill development
of poor and middle-class children" in Canadian Journal
of Public Health (1985) 76:174-178.
Ontario. Children at Risk, Standing Committee on Social Development
(Toronto: Legislative Assembly, July, 1994)
Quebec (Province). "Partners in Crime Prevention: For
a Safer Québec", Report of the Task Force on Crime
Prevention (Quebec: Ministry of Public Security, 1993)
G.R. Patterson, Barbara D. DeBaryshe, and Elizabeth Ramsey,
"A Developmental Perspective on Antisocial Behaviour"
in American Psychologist, Vol. 44 No. 2, February 1989, pp.
329-335
N.I. Rae-Grant, B.H. Thomas, D.R. Offord, D.R. and M.H. Boyle,
Risk, Protective Factors, and the Prevalence of Behavioral
and Emotional Disorders in Children and Adolescents. Journal
of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,
28(2):262-268, 1989.
William J. Reid and Alida Crisafulli, "Marital Discord
and Child Behaviour Problems: A Meta- Analysis" in Journal
of Abnormal Child Psychology, Vol 18 No 1, 1990, pp. 105-117
Lisa A. Serbin, Debbie S. Moskowitz, Alex E. Schwartzman
and Jane E. Ledingham, "Aggressive, Withdrawn, and Aggressive/Withdrawn
Children in Adolescence: Into the Next Generation" in
D. Pepler & K.H. Rubin (eds.) The Development and Treatment
of Childhood Aggression (Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum,
1991)
Lisa A. Serbin, Patricia L. Peters, Valerie J. McAffer and
Alex E. Schwartzman, "Childhood Aggression and Withdrawal
as Predictors of Adolescent Pregnancy, Early Parenthood, and
Environmental Risk for the Next Generation" in Canadian
Journal of Behavioural Science, 1991, 23(3), 318-331.
Cathy Spatz Widom, "The Cycle of Violence" in Science,
Vol. 244, 14 April 1989, pp. 160-166.
P.D. Steinhauer, "Primary Prevention Strategies for
Disadvantaged Populations" in The Health Needs of Disadvantaged
Children and Youth: Proceedings of the Ninth Canadian Ross
Conference in Paediatrics. Canadian Paediatric Society. (Montréal:
Ross Laboratories, 1993), pp. 15 - 30.
David A. Wolfe, Christine Wekerle, and Robin McGee, "Developmental
Disparities of Abused Children: Directions for Prevention"
in Ray DeV. Peters, Robert J. McMahon and Vernon L. Quinsey
(eds.) Aggression and Violence Throughout the Life Span (Newbury
Park, CA: Sage, 1992), pp. 31-51.
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