2.1 Renewable Energy

2.1.1 Small Hydro

Small hydro generally refers to hydroelectric projects of less than 30 megawatts (MW) in size. Though water power was originally harnessed to produce mechanical power to drive machinery in flour mills, sawmills and textile plants, today most small hydro facilities in Canada generate electricity either for remote communities or to sell to a regional, provincial, or territorial grid. Hydro power is a mature and cost-competitive technology, and although many of the best and largest sites in this country have already been developed, many potential small hydro sites remain, especially in remote areas. There are also many existing small hydro facilities no longer in use that could be refurbished with new technology.

The energy potential of a hydro site depends on three factors: the flow, the head, and the efficiency of the generator. The flow is the quantity and speed of the water. The head is the vertical distance over which the water drops. To generate electricity, a site must have adequate river flow and a sufficient head, with the best locations being waterfalls, rapids, canyons, deep valleys and river bends. Careful on-site measurements are required to calculate a site's flow and head that, in combination with the generator's efficiency, determine how much power a site will produce.

Many small hydro projects require a small dam or weir (a submerged dam) to create a headpond or reservoir to ensure an adequate year-round flow. Water in the headpond is directed into an open channel or through a penstock (closed intake pipe), which carries the water downhill to an intake in the powerhouse where the turbine is located. Inside the powerhouse, the turbine blades rotate as they are struck by the falling water, turning a shaft that drives an electric generator.

Run-of-the-river projects use the power in the river water as it passes through the plants and may not require the construction of a dam. These projects generally do not cause alterations in the natural flow of the river.

Small hydro projects are generally classified into the following categories:

The primary benefits of small hydro are as follows:

Clean, Renewable Energy Source with Low Environmental Impact

Hydroelectric developments do not cause greenhouse gas emissions or local air contaminants. The negative environmental impacts often associated with large-scale hydroelectric projects can usually be minimized during the development of small hydro projects through the use of good design and appropriate construction and operating practices. Run-of-the-river projects, in particular, have little environmental impact. Mitigative measures may be required to ensure the protection of wildlife habitat and fish migration routes.

Cost-Competitive

Small hydro developments can provide a competitive source of reliable energy whose cost is not subject to fluctuations in the international oil market. Electricity produced from small hydro projects is particularly competitive when compared to diesel generation that currently supplies electricity in many remote communities. Small hydro can often qualify for certification under green electricity programs that pay a premium price for electricity from an emission-free, environmentally-friendly source.

Socio-Economic Benefits

Small hydro projects can bring economic benefits to a region through construction jobs and use of local services.

Ojibways of the Pic River First Nation
Small Hydro - Selling to the Grid

The Pic River First Nation is a small Ojibway community located between Thunder Bay and Sault Ste. Marie, along the north shore of Lake Superior. The First Nation has part ownership in two operational hydro stations and majority ownership in a third hydro station in the planning stages. Income generated by the sale of power to the provincial grid has been re-invested in the community and used to support additional ventures. The decision was governed by opportunity, economic development and environmental stewardship. Experience gained in the first hydro development has allowed the First Nation to gradually build capacity and play an increasing role in the development and management of subsequent hydro ventures.

Deer Lake First Nation
Mini Hydro - Supplementing Power to the Community

Deer Lake First Nation is a small community of approximately 800 people located in remote northwestern Ontario. Power generation in the community is provided by a diesel-powered generating station with diesel fuel flown in by air. In 1998, a small 490-kilowatt (kW) run-of-the-river hydro generating station was constructed on the Severn River, approximately six kilometres from the community. There is a joint agreement for ownership between Hydro One and the First Nation, however, the First Nation has an option to take over ownership after 10 years of operation.

2.1.2 Wind Power

Wind energy is the world's fastest growing electricity source and is among the cheapest of the renewable energy sources. Good wind sites are fully cost-competitive with traditional fossil fuel generation, and in remote sites, where fuel has to be transported long distances, it is often more cost-effective than fossil fuel generation. Wind is one of the world's cleanest sources of energy - it produces no air or water emissions, no toxic wastes, and does not present any significant hazard to birds or other wildlife.

Wind energy has been in use for thousands of years for pumping water and grinding grain. As early as the 1920s, over a million wind turbines pumped water and provided electricity to farms in rural North America. The current interest by many countries in wind energy was triggered by the need to develop clean, sustainable energy systems that do not rely on fossil fuels. Modern aerodynamics and engineering have significantly improved the efficiency of wind turbines, providing reliable, cost-effective, pollution-free energy for individual, community, and regional applications.

The greatest use of wind energy today occurs in Europe. Canadian use of wind energy has been slower because of relatively low electricity rates and because Canada generates a surplus of electricity. Nevertheless, the wind energy industry is growing and several wind turbine manufacturers now have representatives in Canada.

Wind energy can be used in a variety of applications - from small 50-watt battery chargers in cabins and lighthouses to industrial scale turbines of 2 MW capable of supplying electricity for 500 families. The most common application is to have one or more wind turbines connected to the area grid with the electricity sold to a local utility as a source of income. Wind turbine generators can also be used to offset diesel-generated electricity in remote communities through wind and diesel combinations.

Wind speed is a critical element for the success of a wind generation project. The power and energy output increases dramatically as the wind speed increases. An annual average wind speed greater than 4 metres per second (m/s) is required for small turbines. Utility scale wind power plants require minimum average wind speeds of 6 m/s.

Wind speed is affected by local terrain and generally increases with height above the ground, which is why wind turbines are usually mounted on high towers. Although wind conditions near coastal areas tend to be ideal for wind projects, there are many inland areas suitable for wind turbines, particularly in hilly terrain. As the wind passes over a hill, or through a mountain pass, it becomes compressed with a resultant increase in speed. Rounded hilltops with a wide view in the direction of the prevailing wind make good wind turbine sites. Rough terrain or obstacles, however, may affect local wind speed and/or create turbulence that may decrease energy production and increase wear and tear on the turbines. Location of the wind turbine, therefore, is critical in order to maximize the amount of available wind. Calculating the potential energy production from a wind turbine requires detailed topographical maps of the area and accurate meteorological wind measurements at the proposed site.

Wind turbines work well with agricultural land use and cause little disturbance to farm stock, wildlife and bird life. Restrictions on location, however, include migratory bird paths and airstrip locations.

The major drawback of wind power is variability - wind speeds vary throughout the day and the year, and therefore the amount of electricity generated will also vary. With smaller grids, diesel generators can be used to balance variations in wind-generated electricity. Modern electronic controls permit operation of wind-diesel hybrid systems with a higher proportion of the energy being supplied from the wind.

The cost of wind energy is determined by:

• initial cost of the wind turbine installation;
• wind resources available;
• interest rate on the money invested; and
• availability of renewable energy incentives.

Depending on local wind conditions, typical costs for wind generation can range from $0.05 to $0.15 per kilowatt-hour (kWh), which tends to be slightly higher than that associated with the average fossil fuel plant. In remote areas relying on diesel plants and imported fuel, energy costs can be as high as $0.70 per kWh. Wind generation can be cost-effective in comparison. Economies of scale will continue to decrease wind energy costs, while most conventional generation costs continue to increase. It is important to note that these costs do not account for the environmental and health benefits of using a non-polluting source of energy.

Special consideration must be given to the design of wind turbine installations in harsh, Northern climates. Though the location of remote Northern communities means wind energy can be very cost-effective, most wind turbines are not designed for the severe climatic conditions they may be exposed to. Adaptation to harsh conditions is required for most wind turbines on the market today.

Wind generation is an attractive renewable energy option for Aboriginal and Northern communities with good wind resources and high fuel costs. Successful prospects require a careful feasibility assessment, a local champion to get the project on its feet and ongoing operational attention by dedicated staff.

Piikani Nation
Weather Dancer Performs

In windswept southern Alberta, Piikani Nation is harnessing the power of the wind to generate clean emission-free electricity. A 900 kW wind turbine, known as Weather Dancer 1, generates an average of 3 000 MW hours of emission-free electricity each year, sufficient to meet the needs of 450 homes. By displacing coal and gas-based grid electricity, the Weather Dancer reduces annual carbon dioxide emissions by approximately 2 500 tonnes per year. The project has been undertaken as a joint venture with EPCOR, an Alberta-based utility company. The partnership has a long-term contract to supply power to the grid. Eighty percent of the power is sold at a fixed price which is then sold to customers as "green power" at a premium rate. The remaining 20 percent is sold to the regional power pool at market prices.

Rankin Inlet
Wind Power in the North

Of the five wind turbines purchased by the Nunavut Power Corporation (NPC) in 1995 for installation at various locations across the North, only the one at Rankin Inlet is still in operation. The harsh Northern climate has proved to be a challenging environment for wind turbines. The 50 kW unit is connected to the local grid supplied by diesel generators. Following adaptation of the equipment for local conditions and ongoing maintenance, the Rankin Inlet unit has been operating successfully since 2000, displacing approximately 40 000 litres of diesel fuel per year.

2.1.3 Solar Energy

The sun's energy has long been used for common activities such as preserving foods for long-term storage and for drying clothing. Today's technologies allow us to use solar energy for new and diverse applications:

• Photovoltaics (PV) converts the sun's energy into electricity for use in homes, buildings or remote applications. The efficiency of solar PV increases in colder temperatures and is particularly well-suited to Canada's climate. Although the price of PV modules is decreasing as new, more efficient technologies are developed, PV applications are still relatively expensive. PV systems are most cost-effective in small load applications in remote areas;
• Solar Air Heating Systems convert the sun's energy to heat to be used for space-heating, usually in large buildings such as schools, community centres or manufacturing facilities. One application is the Solarwall, developed by Conserval, a Canadian company. A Solarwall requires a large south-facing wall and consists of a perforated dark metal cladding that covers the wall, leaving an air cavity between the metal and the wall. When sunlight hits the dark metal, it is absorbed, heating the air space thus preheating the air drawn into the building's main heating system. Use of the Solarwall is most cost-effective in Northern locations where the sunlight reflects off the snow to improve the solar gain, and high fuel prices and cold temperatures combine to increase the fuel savings;
• Solar Water Heaters collect the sun's energy to heat water for use either providing hot water or for space heating. Water is circulated through a collector panel and the heated water is then pumped into a water tank for domestic use. In Canada, glycol, or a similar fluid to prevent freezing, is used to circulate through the solar collectors, and its heat is then transferred via a heat exchanger to the hot water tank. In cold climates, solar heaters are often used on a seasonal basis;
• Passive Solar is a method of building design that takes advantage of the sun's energy through placement of windows, and the use of colours and materials that absorb, reflect and store solar energy as needed to help regulate indoor temperatures.

It is not necessary to live in a hot climate to take advantage of solar energy. In fact, some solar technologies operate most efficiently in cold climates. Relevant factors in evaluating the feasibility of solar technologies include the number of hours of sunshine on a daily and annual basis and the intensity of the solar radiation. In Canada, the regions with the most solar radiation are in parts of southern Alberta and Saskatchewan, but there are many other regions where solar technologies can be cost-effective.

Alaittuq High School - Rankin Inlet
Solar Energy Heats High School

In the community of Rankin Inlet on the northwestern shore of Hudson Bay, the sun's energy is being used to help heat the local high school. As in most Northern communities, the combination of low temperatures and high fuel prices mean heating costs can be exceptionally high. The use of solar energy captured by a solar heating system known as a Solarwall is expected to reduce fuel use at the school by about 2 600 litres per year. Taking into account rebates available for renewable energy, the system is expected to be cost-effective after five to six years.

Fort Smith Recreation Centre
Combining Solarwall and Heat Recovery Ventilation

A Solarwall has been installed at a community recreation centre in Fort Smith, NWT, a community of 2 500 inhabitants about 300 kilometres south of Yellowknife. The Fort Smith Recreational and Community Centre is a multi-purpose facility that provides a range of recreational programs and services to the community. The 120 m2 Solarwall provides over 75 percent of the total energy for space heating, resulting in a total savings of 6 370 litres of fuel oil.

Nunavut Arctic College, Iqaluit
Photovoltaic System Performs in Harsh Climate

In July 1995, a 3.2 kW photovoltaic (PV) system was installed on the south wall of the Nunavut Arctic College in Iqaluit, NU, feeding into the local grid. Electricity produced from the PV array displaces the use of diesel fuel, reducing greenhouse gases and local air contaminants. The project was designed to monitor and document the long-term performance of a grid-tied PV system in Nunavut, and to promote PV as a viable power source in the Arctic.

2.1.4 District Heating - Wood

District heating (DH) systems use central energy plants to meet the space heating needs of residential, institutional, and commercial buildings. In some cases, domestic hot water and cooling needs are also filled. The central plants replace individual, building-based furnaces and boilers.

Advantages to DH include the ability to achieve more efficient use of local energy sources and thereby create a more flexible energy supply. DH allows diversification of fuel supply, encouraging economic development by including fuels that are not readily adaptable to building specific heating systems, such as garbage incineration, industrial waste heat, and biomass energy. The typical fuel source for many Aboriginal district heating systems is wood chips or wood waste, referred to as biomass. The fuel is either harvested directly or obtained as a byproduct from local sawmill operations.

DH systems also facilitate the use of more sophisticated energy-efficient technology and provide greater economic incentive to improve efficiency. Focusing energy generation at fewer but larger central plants makes it easier to maintain equipment, and to integrate technology upgrades such as emission controls. DH systems can adapt to different fuels in response to changes in availability, costs or evolving environmental concerns.

DH systems offer a range of potential social and economic benefits. The improved energy efficiency of DH systems and the use of available energy sources can significantly reduce community and individual energy expenditures. By increasing flexibility of energy supply, DH also offers communities improved energy security and price stability.

Kluane First Nation
Self-Sufficiency Through Use of Local Fuel Source

Burwash Landing is the home of the Kluane First Nation, people of the southern Tutchone. A small community on the west shore of Kluane Lake adjacent to Kluane National Park, Burwash Landing is on the Alaska Highway about 285 kilometres northwest of Whitehorse. In order to reduce dependence on outside fuel sources, the First Nation installed a DH system. A central boiler provides hot water heat to four community buildings. Fuel is provided by wood chips, harvested from Aboriginal lands. A recent forest fire in the area left many of the trees dead, but still standing, providing a good source of fuel. Benefits to the community include savings in operating budget along with non-tangible benefits including reduced reliance on outside fuel suppliers and fluctuating prices, keeping the money within the community, and creating local employment.

Grassy Narrows First Nation
District Heating as an Alternative to Transmission Line Upgrade

Grassy Narrows First Nation, located in northwestern Ontario, 90 kilometres from the town of Kenora, installed a DH system in 1997. The system services the commercial core including the school, day care centre, administration building and community hall, and approximately 30 percent of the residences in the core area. The system was first installed to delay construction of a 90-kilometre electrical transmission line upgrade that otherwise would have been required to heat the school. After an initial slow start, the system is now working well. Once capital repayment is complete, the system is expected to provide a return to the community. Meanwhile, advantages include stability of heating costs, reduced risk in transportation and storage of fuel, and a dramatic decrease in house fires.

Oujé-Bougoumou Cree Nation
District Heating - Turning Waste into Energy

Oujé-Bougoumou Cree Nation is located in Quebec, approximately 960 kilometres north of Montreal. After years of relocation from traditional villages and settlements, the Oujé-bougoumou Eenou reached an agreement with the federal and provincial governments to build a permanent community. As part of the traditional philosophy of sustainable development featured throughout the planning and construction of the new community, a biomass district heating system was installed to provide space heating and domestic hot water to the entire village. The Oujé-Bougoumou system represents the first village-wide application of a district heating system in North America using biomass as the fuel source.

2.2 Energy Efficiency

2.2.1 Housing

The energy efficiency of houses can be improved through a wide range of design measures and materials. One of the most widely-referenced programs for energy-efficient houses is entitled R-2000, a commercial program. Its certified builders construct houses to meet its high standards of energy efficiency, ventilation, low-emission, resource-efficient materials selection, and water efficiency. R-2000 homes consume about two-thirds the energy of conventional homes.

The operating energy consumed in cold climate housing is dominated by space heating, and the key factor affecting this is the design of envelope, glazing and mechanical systems. Energy-efficient homes typically consume half the energy of similar conventional homes for heating, and advanced home technologies are available to reduce this load by a further 50 percent.

The elements of advanced housing include:

• efficient framing to reduce the amount of timber used;
• blown-in cellulose insulation;
• advanced air barrier systems;
• improved basement insulation;
• energy-efficient windows using advanced technologies such as low-e coatings, argon fills and insulative spacers;
• combined space and water heating systems;
• heat recovery ventilators (HRV);
• energy-efficient lighting; and
• water-efficient fixtures.

There is a cost associated with these measures, however, and cost-effectiveness needs to be carefully considered.

When considering the energy issues related to housing, there are opportunities for improved efficiencies in three main areas:

• embodied energy - the energy required to produce the building materials, transport them to the building site, and erect the building;
• operating energy - the energy associated with the normal operation of the building for space heating, domestic water heating, and operating lights and appliances serving the dwelling; and
• attached energy - the energy associated with servicing the dwelling and its occupants within the community, for example, to transport goods and people from and to the dwelling.

All three of these qualities are significant in new housing development decisions, whereas only operating energy is likely to be impacted by retrofit measures. The development of new housing in cold climates should take into account a number of critical energy-related considerations, including:

• Location (Relative to places of work and supply of goods and services) - This factor bears directly on the attached energy component and the sustainability of the community as a whole.
• Occupant Density / Type of Dwelling - Smaller attached homes require less material for construction, have lower operating energy consumption, and usually consume less attached energy than their detached counterparts.
• Dwelling Orientation - The orientation of a dwelling relative to sun and wind is also of importance. In a cold climate, southerly exposures can be used to admit sunlight into areas and surfaces that have the capacity to absorb and slowly emit absorbed heat. Materials such as heavy masonry walls and floors, or overlaid ceramic tiles can be effective in this regard. Protection against heat loss associated with prevailing winds can be achieved with proper wall and roof designs and the judicious use of insulation and external wind breaks.
• Occupant Behaviour - Some types of human behaviour can defeat even the most sophisticated, energy-efficient technologies.
• Building Technology - The technology of buildings including materials of construction, envelope and glazing design, domestic water and space heating and ventilation systems are all important factors contributing to the overall energy efficiency of a structure.
  
  Retrofits to improve the operational energy efficiency of dwellings generally relate to:
  • building envelope and insulation improvements;
  • new glazing and door technologies;
  • higher efficiency space and water heating systems; and
  • appliance upgrades.

Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte
Energy Efficiency - New and Retrofit Housing

Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte is located in Tyendinaga, on the north shore of Lake Ontario, approximately 95 kilometres west of Kingston. The innovation and creativity of this First Nation's housing program has been recognized nationally through numerous awards. Best available practices in energy-efficient construction have been applied to housing projects, which are not only practical, but also highly effective in meeting the social needs of the community members. After years of developing and promoting energy-efficient housing, the community is now seeing the benefits in its overall housing situation. The current standard in Tyendinaga is for all rental homes to be constructed according to R-2000 standards or better.

Kahnawake Mohawk Territory
Kanata Healthy Housing Project - Creating New Perceptions of Sustainable Housing

The Kahnawake Mohawk Territory is located on the south shore of the St. Lawrence River, 10 kilometres southwest of Montreal. Of the many projects under way to take on climate change and energy efficiency, the Kanata Healthy Housing Project incorporates several innovative technologies designed to maximize occupant health and comfort, while minimizing environmental impact. Part of the challenge of the project has been to go beyond technology to effect a change in perception and a lasting change in lifestyle.

2.2.2 Waste Heat Recovery

Many remote communities throughout the country are not connected to the mainline electrical grid and rely on individual diesel generating stations for electricity generation. As a byproduct of generation, the engines produce large quantities of waste heat. Using heat exchangers at the generating plant, waste heat can be collected and distributed through insulated hot water pipes to heat community buildings. Waste heat recovery, therefore, is a type of district heating system where the energy source is waste heat recovered from diesel generating equipment.

The amount of heat available varies according to the amount of energy generated. Fortunately, peak electrical loads coincide with peak heating loads in the winter months. Sufficient community size and electrical demand is required in order to allow the thermal output to generate revenue savings required to cover the cost of development.

Community buildings with larger heating loads work well to provide sufficient return on investment for distribution piping, particularly for retrofit systems. The connection of new residential subdivisions can also be cost-effective if the system is integrated as part of the original construction.

An important factor in the success of a district heating system relying on waste heat recovery is the location of the diesel generating plant relative to the buildings to be connected to the system. In many remote communities, the generating plant is located close to the airport, some distance from the community core. In addition to keeping the noise at a distance from the residential area, the advantage to being located near the airport, is minimized fuel transportation. The waste heat is then handy for heating the airport terminals and the work buildings located at the airport, but it is often too far for economical use in community buildings. The length of distribution piping required can greatly impact the capital cost of construction as well as the efficiency of heat delivered.

The cost of fuel can also impact the system viability. Remote communities see more savings using waste heat recovery systems because of higher imported fuel costs.

For retrofit systems, the physical size of the existing power plant building must be sufficient to allow installation of the necessary heat exchangers, pumps and other equipment. Benefits of waste heat recovery system include:

• reduced reliance on imported fuel;
• reduced money flowing out of the community;
• reduced emissions; and
• enhanced operation of generators.

Fort McPherson
Partnership: An Investment in the Environment

Fort McPherson is a community of 700 people located on the east shore of the Peel River about 100 kilometres (Km) north of the Arctic Circle and 110 km south of Inuvik. Through a joint venture of the Gwich'in Development Corporation and the Northwest Territories Power Corporation, a central heating system was installed using the water jacket coolant of the diesel generators at the power plant as a source of supplemental heat to community buildings. The system displaced approximately 164 000 litres of fuel oil in 1998, corresponding to a savings of $98 000.

Fort Severn First Nation
Waste Heat Provides Freeze Protection for Water Supply

Fort Severn First Nation, a remote community with fly-in-only access located on Hudson Bay in northern Ontario, uses a waste heat recovery system. The system is operated in conjunction with the Hydro One, Remote Communities diesel generating station located in the community. Waste heat from the diesel-generating engines is transferred across the road to the First Nation's water treatment plant to heat the building and provide heat to the community water supply as a primary method of freeze protection.

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