Logging Plans

Modern forest practitioners, when planning a timber harvest, always consider the global woodland environment _ _ that is, all forest resources, not just the trees to be cut. That is why, when logging operations are included in your forest management plan, so too is a logging plan.

A logging plan saves you time and money by laying out ahead of time how various harvesting activities are to be co-ordinated. It is usually presented with a map showing specific cutblock boundaries, main and spur roads, primary and secondary skid trails and landings. For each cutblock in a management area, the plan describes how, and with what equipment, felling will be done, and how the wood is to be forwarded from stump to landing.

Logging Rationale, Strategies and Methods

Why Harvest?

You may decide to harvest timber for a number of reasons: to replace completely one crop with another; to improve, by thinning and spacing, the quality and value of the end crop; to salvage for sale timber that would otherwise be lost because of blowdown, parasites, disease or fire; or to realize the cash value of the end crop you have raised. But when, how and what quantity should you cut? How will you regenerate the area afterwards, and with what species?

When to Harvest?

Timing the harvest depends on the age of the stand, its rate of growth, the presence of insects or disease, fire or wind damage, the financial needs of your community and the state of the market. To harvest before the stand has reached its maximum annual growth means losing significant volume and revenue. But to harvest after this point means retaining a stand whose annual growth in value is slowing down. Of course, if the market is poor, the trees can, and should, be left growing, albeit more slowly, until prices pick up again. As long as fire protection measures are in place and you don't need maximum cash immediately, it is best to hold out for a favourable market. While waiting, you could cut a few commercially valuable trees to provide modest cash flow. However, it's important not to "high-grade," that is, to take only the best trees, while letting the stand as a whole continue growing.

How Much to Cut?

Good forest practice dictates that harvests be more or less equal to the rate at which trees are growing. When the harvesting area of your forest is managed for a sustained yield, your management plan indicates an annual or, since many reserves have relatively small areas, a periodic cut. The plan, of course, builds in flexibility to take account of fluctuating market conditions.

Silviculture Systems

There are three main logging and regenerating methods which foresters call silviculture systems. They use this term because they are describing not just different ways to cut, but also the corresponding ways to prepare a new seedbed after cutting, that is, the ways to regenerate the next crop. The three main silviculture systems currently used are clear-cutting, selection cutting and, to a lesser extent, shelterwood cutting. Each has advantages and disadvantages.

Clear-cutting

Clear-cutting, or removing all trees from an area in one cut, is the most common, and most criticized form of industrial harvesting.

This method is used either to remove an entire stand and produce a new, even-aged stand or to introduce to the current stand a new species, such as Douglas fir or lodgepole pine, that requires full sunlight. A forest manager may also be obliged to clear-cut after a fire because it is the most effective way to salvage dead trees and burn-residues, or in unhealthy forests to stop the spread of certain pests and disease.

After clear-cutting, the seeds which have been left when trees are felled, or those blown over from trees bordering the harvested area, can regenerate naturally. Cutting usually coincides, therefore, with the time that trees drop their seeds. A variation of clear-cutting, called the "seed tree method," leaves selected, wind-firm trees standing, scattered throughout the cutblock, to provide numerous sure seed sources for natural regeneration. The clear-cut area may also be planted with seedlings to improve its appearance immediately.

A management plan prescribing a clear-cut silviculture system outlines the corresponding follow-up treatments _ _ site preparation, possible fill-in planting, and then brushing and juvenile spacing _ _ which promote good natural regeneration.

Advantages

Clear-cutting has two major commercial advantages: it can be carried out easily over large areas at one time, and equipment and logging methods can be chosen without concern for damaging "leave" trees or plants on the forest floor.

Disadvantages

Clear-cutting is totally inappropriate in an area managed for multiple uses under an integrated resource-management plan. It can be harmful to the environment in many ways. Without trees to use the groundwater or rainwater, the soil may become wetter and less stable; nutrients are depleted or washed away. Clear-cutting, particularly on steep slopes, can increase the potential for erosion, landslides and rapid run-off until the area regenerates. Finally, in addition to leaving the land looking raw and naked for several years, the monotonous even-aged forest that clear-cutting creates lacks the appeal of varied, uneven-aged woodlands.

Selection Cutting

Selection cutting creates or maintains uneven-aged stands. Its objectives are to maximize use of the area, maintain site stability and encourage good regeneration. Under this silviculture system, partial cuttings are made repeatedly so that regeneration is continuous. A permanent forest cover is, therefore, maintained. Mature timber is removed either in small groups or as single trees scattered among younger, not yet marketable trees. Selection cutting is the preferred method for harvesting special products such as pilings, poles, building logs and fencing material.

Advantages

In second-growth forests with potential for significant increases in timber growth and value, the selection cutting system works well. Like thinning, which it closely resembles, it brings in continuous revenues. At the same time, this system encourages the regeneration of more vigorous and resistant species, and improves the health and growing conditions of the plants and trees left on site. Many reserve woodlands are second-growth forests where the selection cutting system would be ideal.

The selection system, because it regenerates uneven-aged stands, also encourages wildlife that flourish in habitats created by a mix of young and older trees. In addition, selection cutting protects soil from overexposure because it maintains a more natural forest, and requires fewer mechanical or chemical treatments to make trees thrive. While selection cutting demands care to prevent damage to trees being left ("leave" trees), this greater effort protects, and more completely utilizes, all forest resources.

Selection cutting requires more extensive roads for access than clear-cutting. However, the additional roads are mainly branch roads and skid trails which facilitate fire protection and silvicultural treatments, as well as access for recreation, hunting and trapping.

Disadvantages

Selection cutting requires more difficult and expensive procedures and equipment (particularly with increasing ground slope) to protect the soil, trees, seedlings or other plants remaining on site. However, both the potential costs and damages can be minimized by advance planning and careful supervision of work.

A note of caution is in order for those considering the selection system: determining which trees to cut and which to leave requires professional expertise and guidelines specific to each site. The choice of trees to cut has an impact on all future management activities, the final value of the end crop and the global forest environment. A wrong decision can undo years of effort and investment.

Shelterwood Cutting

The shelterwood system is a variant of selection cutting. It is designed for shade-tolerant species which can grow under the canopy of the final crop of trees. Under this system, a sequence of cuttings, also rather like thinnings, gradually removes the original stand of trees. The first cutting creates vacancies in the stand and encourages the natural regeneration of a new crop; subsequent cuttings remove the shelter of the old crop to make growing room for the new one. Under the canopy of mature trees, both seedlings and the soil are protected from overexposure and temperature fluctuations. Shading also discourages some competing vegetation and may reduce the need for brushing.

Comparative Costs and Cash Flow

Clear-cutting is initially cheaper than either selection or shelterwood cutting, but subsequent silvicultural treatments cost more. The most significant difference among the systems relates, therefore, to cash flow. Clear-cutting brings a higher immediate return, followed by a long delay in income until the second crop grows. Selection and shelterwood cutting offer lower, but continuous revenues because natural regeneration is continuous, proceeding along with small scale, scattered harvesting.

Logging Activities Common to All Systems

Regardless of the cutting system or size of the forest, six basic activities are involved in logging:

• felling and delimbing the trees;

• yarding, or transporting the tree lengths to a central location called a landing;

• bucking, or cutting the tree lengths into logs of prescribed lengths;

• loading the logs onto trucks;

• hauling the logs to the sorting area or mill; and

• disposing of slash, and rehabilitating and preparing the site for regeneration.

Each of these activities can be conducted in a number of ways using a variety of equipment. The choice depends on the material to be harvested, the site conditions and the silviculture system you select.

Felling and Bucking

For First Nations just beginning forestry operations, felling and bucking will be their first logging activities. The purchase of a few chain saws is the only capital outlay for equipment.

Felling and Delimbing

Before starting work, crews are trained carefully. Safe felling and delimbing is an acquired skill which cannot be learned from books or videos alone. It calls for knowledge of equipment and tree behaviour, and instant good judgment to guard against the constant danger of snapping limbs, rolling logs and kickbacks. For these reasons, felling and delimbing should only be done by experienced tree-cutters working under an even more experienced foreman/forewoman.

Yarding and Skidding

Yarding means transporting logs from the stump to the landing where they are loaded onto trucks. On steep slopes, logs are usually moved by machines that partially lift them.

On flat or rolling terrain, skidders or crawler tractors drag the logs with heavy wire cables called "chokers" or with grapple hooks. Skidding can also be done with draft animals and, with less danger to man and beast, with specially designed, small winches.

Bucking, or Cutting Felled Trees into Logs

Bucking is usually done by the feller, either in the woods or at roadside landings before hauling to the mill. Correct bucking can actually increase the value of your logs by removing defects or creating special products. Simple things, such as square cut ends, and accurate measurement to include trim allowances, can mean the difference between getting the top or bottom dollar for your log.

Decisions on how to buck a log depend on the tree's quality, the distribution of knots and knowing what the buyer wants. An experienced, knowledgeable foreman/forewoman in charge of the bucking crew can ensure correct bucking for maximum profitability of your operations.

Loading

Many First Nations were encouraged to develop their forests when the self-loading logging truck revolutionized small-scale operations, making it profitable to recover small volumes of material -- even one or two truckloads. If a self-loader is not available in your area, front-end or wheeled loaders with grapple hooks can also be used profitably for small-scale operations. Alternatively, First Nations who don't want to buy any equipment can contract out the loading.

Hauling

Hauling is often contracted out. Its cost is affected not only by distance from the mill or log dump, but also by landing organization and loading efficiency. Your First Nation can, therefore, control hauling costs, often a large portion of overall logging costs, through careful advance planning of road and landing layouts. A professionally designed logging plan will locate your landings and skid trails for efficient, environmentally sound operations and cost-effective loading and hauling to maximize profits.

Slash Disposal and Site Rehabilitation/Preparation

When a logging operation is finished, the residue, called "slash," is handled to reduce fire hazards and to prepare the site for reforestation. This residue is usually slashed to lie flat and decompose faster so it fertilizes the area for planting hence its name. Alternatively, the slash can be spread and "broadcast" burned throughout the cutblock. In this case, firebreaks and other safety measures will be necessary and a burning permit may be required. The debris accumulated at landings is spot burned rather than buried under road construction areas because it is not stable enough for fill.

Affordable Logging and Processing Equipment for Small Operations

If a First Nation company, or the First Nation itself, does the logging or any phase of it, it will have to choose equipment to rent or buy. The choice depends on several factors: the size of the operations, which jobs it is going to do, whether it will do them with hand-held equipment or with heavy machinery, and what the comparative performance, risks and costs of the different machines on the market may be.

Often, First Nations join forces to keep costs down. Like co-operatives, they share expenses for jointly used equipment, as well as for other operations like hauling that they contract out.

The growing interest in forestry on reserves has increased interest in the less expensive, scaled-down equipment, including portable saw mills, now readily available.

Some First Nations, however, are not yet prepared to purchase machinery. Instead, a few of them have modified basic farm machines they already own for yarding, skidding or site preparation. In so doing, their most important concern was safety, since on slopes or with larger, heavy logs, tractors can be pulled over backwards without warning. Other First Nations have investigated horse logging for use in sensitive or wet areas, and for selection cutting, thinning or loading. They have also become aware of the need to deal with concerns that horse logging raises about safety, and about the treatment of animals working in the bush.

Protecting the Environment

Unplanned harvesting can damage the environment. The best time to protect the environment is before harvesting begins; the best way to prevent environmental damage is to review your logging plan from the environmental perspective. Look specifically for activities that could damage the environment. If you find any, revise your plan to prevent or limit the damage. There are a number of things to look for.

• Harvesting on steep slopes can accelerate water run-off into streams and lakes, and thereby damage fish habitat and affect drinking water supplies. It can also lead to erosion by carrying away topsoil and inhibiting future regeneration of the forest.
• Harvesting near streams, lakes and rivers can cause debris to enter waterways, disrupting fish habitat, and increase water temperatures by reducing shade.
• Harvesting in wetlands and permafrost can cause long-term disruption in the ecology of an area, because the harvesting equipment can disturb the soil, cause ruts, disrupt drainage, and leak oils and other fluids into the environment.
• Harvesting in ecologically unique areas can lead to the irreversible loss of the unique species inhabiting the area.
• Harvesting in areas likely to be seen by tourists can destroy natural settings and scenic beauty.
• Harvesting in breeding and nesting areas, or on migration paths, can adversely affect wildlife. Access roads can make it easier for hunters to reach wildlife.

Where the logging plan contains components likely to lead to environmental damage, it should be modified. In many cases, measures can be taken that will limit harvesting damage. For example, harvesting in wetlands can be scheduled during winter, and skidders with wide tires can be used. Harvesting near the breeding areas of wildlife can be scheduled outside the breeding season.

Harvesting operations must also be carried out with care. Logging debris needs to be managed to reduce fuel sources in the event of a fire. Cutting, grinding and welding metals, or the improper handling of flammable substances can lead to forest fires. Careless skidding and yarding can damage standing trees.

Legal and Regulatory Requirements for Harvesting

The purpose of the forestry provisions of the Indian Act and the Indian Timber Regulations is to assist First Nations to secure economic benefits from their forest resources, while protecting the environment and providing for the stewardship of the forest resource.

To achieve these objectives, the Indian Act creates offences for cutting and removing timber from a reserve without permission of the Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development. In granting permits or licences to cut timber, the Minister seeks to ensure that timber revenues are collected for the benefit of the First Nation. A logging plan is normally required before a permit or licence is issued. It is reviewed to determine whether there are environmental implications. If so, the logging plan may need to be revised to reduce or limit environmental damage. First Nation Councils must consent to permits and licences issued for reserve land. They are encouraged to seek independent legal and professional advice before giving their consent.

If your First Nation wants to harvest on provincial Crown lands, it will also have to obtain a permit. While some details of requirements for a permit vary from province to province, applications usually must include a cruise summary and maps, appraisal data, silvicultural prescriptions and a logging plan.

How Will You Be Paid for Your Timber?

Scaling and Grading to Determine Price

When timber is cut for sale, it is "scaled," either by the volume of the piece or by its weight, to measure the quantity or volume of timber logged. In addition, in many regions, when logs are scaled they are also graded to determine their value. They are then bought or sold by grade category. The grade is determined by the size, growth rate, form or shape of the log, and the presence and size of knots and rot or insect damage.

Pricing Special Products

Special products are specially measured for pricing. For example, pulpwood is measured and scaled in stacked cubic metres; firewood is measured and sold in cords.

Christmas trees are graded by form, density, height and species; poles, pilings and building logs are "stick-scaled" for length and diameter and priced accordingly.

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