Main
Minerals and Metals Produced in Canada
Pure aluminum
is a relatively soft, silvery white metal with a dull lustre that
is caused by a thin coating of aluminum oxide. It is this coating,
which forms almost instantly when the metal is exposed to air, that
accounts for its resistance to oxidation. Aluminum's great versatility
stems from its excellent properties. It is exceptionally light,
has great strength when alloyed and is impervious to rust, possesses
a high degree of workability and conductivity, and has a pleasing
appearance.
Today, aluminum
outstrips all other nonferrous metals in terms of volume used.
The largest
markets for aluminum in terms of total use are transportation, building
and construction, containers and packaging, electrical, consumer
durables, and machinery and equipment.
Bauxite, the
most important aluminum-bearing ore, contains aluminum oxide, the
raw material from which aluminum metal is made. On average, it takes
about 4 t of bauxite to obtain 2 t of aluminum oxide, which in turn
yield 1 t of metal. Most commercial bauxite deposits are located
in tropical or sub-tropical regions of the world.
The Canadian
aluminum industry differs from the country's other resource-based
industries in that the raw material it uses is entirely imported.
What attracted the industry to this country was a resource of another
sort – falling water, one of nature's great renewable sources
of energy. Canada is a major producer of this metal.
Primary aluminum
production capacity in Canada was about 2.7 Mt in 2001.
For more information
see aluminum.
 CHRYSOTILE
“Asbestos”
by itself is not a proper mineral name. “Asbestos” is
the commercial term applied to a group of silicate minerals that
readily separate into thin, strong fibres that are flexible, heat
resistant, and chemically inert. Qualities such as fire resistance,
electrical resistance and tensile strength make these silicate minerals
excellent for uses ranging from brake linings in cars and aircraft
to pipes for water and sewer systems.
For commercial
and historical reasons, the term “asbestos” includes
six different mineral fibres. These fibres fall into two mineralogical
categories, namely, amphibole and serpentine.
The amphibole
category comprises five mineral fibres, none of which are produced
in Canada. The serpentine category comprises only one mineral fibre,
which is called chrysotile. Chrysotile is the only fibre produced
in, and exported from, Canada. Because of its many practical qualities,
chrysotile makes up about 99% of world “asbestos” production
and trade today.
In recent
years, “asbestos” has come under close scrutiny as a
potential health hazard. Most of these health hazards come from
the past use of amphibole asbestos and from inappropriate practices
such as sprayed-on insulation. These practices have been discontinued
in Canada since the 1970s. Worldwide, the main varieties of amphibole
asbestos used commercially are crocidolite (blue asbestos) and amosite
(brown asbestos).
Chrysotile
is in a different class of silicate minerals. Scientific evidence
has demonstrated that it can be used safely at low levels of exposure
(approximately 1 f/ml). Regulations have been developed and are
enforced rigorously to control exposure to chrysotile dust.
In Canada,
chrysotile occurs as veins within deposits of igneous rocks rich
in iron and magnesium. The veins of chrysotile may vary from hairline
size to 10 cm in width, although most are less than 1 cm wide.
In Canada,
chrysotile is mined from deposits concentrated in a 100-km-long
belt of rock in the Eastern Townships of Quebec extending from the
town of Asbestos in the west to East Broughton in the east. The
town of Asbestos is the site of the Western World's largest known
deposit.
Most of the
chrysotile mines in Canada are surface (open-pit) mines, although
there is still one active underground operation.
More than
90% of Canada's chrysotile production is exported to approximately
60 countries. Canada's major markets are in Asia, Africa and Latin
America.
Due to their
intrinsic qualities, affordable cost and the resulting job creation
in local communities, the demand in developing countries for encapsulated
chrysotile manufactured products has become relatively more important
in recent years in response to pressing needs for water, sewage
and housing infrastructure development.
For more information
see chrysotile
Coal has become,
and continues to be, a vital component of Canadian life. Ironically,
however, most Canadians will never actually see coal.
Coal is second
only to oil in meeting the world's energy needs and is a critical
input in the manufacture of steel. In Canada, coal meets about one
seventh of our primary energy needs, mainly as a fuel for electricity
generation. Canadian industry has also benefited from coal. For
example, the Canadian steel industry depends on coal in the production
of almost every tonne of steel. Coal is also one of Canada's leading
mineral export commodities and is Canada's largest export to the
important Asian markets of Japan and South Korea.
Canada's abundant
resources of coal are most extensive in the three western provinces,
and northward towards the Arctic Circle. In the west, coal is found
in the plains areas, the Rocky Mountain foothills, and in the Rocky
Mountain range. In the east, undersea deposits exist off Cape Breton
Island.
Undersea deposits
used to be mined through underground mines from Nova Scotia's Cape
Breton Island for more than 100 years. However, surface mining has
long since become the main coal extraction method in Canada. About
95% of Canadian coal production comes from surface mines.
Approximately
half of Canada's coal is transported by rail. Coal from mines in
eastern British Columbia and western Alberta travels about 1100
km to west coast ocean ports, or 2300 km to Thunder Bay for shipment
by lake to Ontario or the United States.
In Canada,
we produce more coal than we can use. The result is that about half
our production is exported, making Canada one of the the world's
leading exporters of coal.
More than
20 countries import coal from Canada, our largest markets being
Japan and Korea.
Although coal
use is increasing worldwide, growing attention is being given to
the effect of coal mining and its use on the environment.
In Canada,
we have some of the world's most stringent standards for mine operations,
worker safety and environmental protection. These standards ensure
that coal mining has minimal effects on air quality and ground or
surface water, and that lands are returned to other productive uses
within a few years of being mined.
For more information
see carbon.
In nature,
copper is usually associated with other metals such as zinc, nickel,
molybdenum and gold. Copper combines with sulphur and iron to form
sulphide minerals, which may occur with these metals in either massive
sulphide deposits or as disseminated deposits known as porphyries.
The most common
copper deposits in Canada are accumulations of massive sulphides
from volcanic or magmatic activity, and porphyries, which have a
magmatic origin. Economic massive sulphide deposits normally contain
concentrations (or grade) of copper and other metals, which are
higher than those of porphyry deposits, which usually are much larger
in volume.
Orebodies
at or near the surface are usually mined by open-pit methods. When
an orebody occurs at depth it must be mined by underground methods.
Some of the
most common and widespread applications for copper are in electrical
transmissions, water tube, castings and heat exchangers. In Canada,
most than half of the refined copper used annually is used for electrical
applications, mostly wire. Worldwide, over two thirds of copper
is used in wire and cable.
Copper is
at the heart of the giant generators at power stations, transformers,
electric motors of diesel locomotives, starters and generators of
automobiles, and thousands of smaller electric motors, such as those
used in household appliances. Copper cables are buried underground
to form power and communications networks for cities and towns,
and laid beneath the sea to provide links between continents.
The second
largest user of copper is the brass mill industry, which manufactures
copper and copper alloy tube and pipe, plate, sheet and strip, and
rods, bars and shapes.
Canada is
an important producer of copper, one of the most useful and important
metals known.
Occurrences
of copper minerals in Canada are very widespread. However, concentrations
of copper-bearing ore that permit profitable exploitation are confined
to relatively few locations. Within Canada, four provinces, British
Columbia, Ontario, Quebec and Manitoba, account for the majority
of copper production. British Columbia is the largest copper-producing
province. Ontario, the second largest copper-producing province,
owes much of its importance to the Sudbury region where the metal
is recovered in conjunction with nickel mining operations. Another
important copper-producing area in Ontario is Timmins. Large-scale
copper mining began in Quebec with the opening of the Horne mine
at Noranda late in 1927 and the smelter built there now recycles
copper and produces primary copper. Copper production in Manitoba,
Canada's fourth largest copper-producing province, is centred around
the copper smelter in Flin Flon. Elsewhere in Canada, copper is
recovered in minor amounts in the Atlantic provinces, the Yukon
and the Northwest Territories. Voisey's Bay in Newfoundland and
Labrador will produce copper as a by-product to nickel and cobalt
when it starts production later in the decade.
For
more information see copper.
Gold is a bright,
shiny yellow metal, notable for its great density – 19.3 times
the weight of an equal volume of water – and valued for its
extreme ductility, high resistance to corrosion, lustrous beauty,
and for its scarcity.
Because it
is the least chemically active of all metals, gold usually occurs
in the free or uncombined state. It sometimes is found as nuggets,
flakes or "dust" in gravel or sand along creeks and streams;
these deposits are called placers.
For the average
person, the most familiar use of gold is the manufacture of jewelry,
coins and other ornamentation. In fact, nearly 85% of total gold
supply is used in these forms. Gold is also used in electronics,
dentistry and the aerospace industry. The remainder is purchased
by investors.
Canada is one
of the world's leading producers of this fascinating metal.
Canada is also
one of the world's largest producers of official gold coins and
the high-quality Maple Leaf bullion coin series, produced by the
Royal Canadian Mint, is sold almost worldwide.
Gold is mined
in much the same way as other metals. Orebodies near the surface
are amenable to open-pit mining methods. When an orebody is discovered
at a greater depth, underground mining is required.
In 2001, Ontario
was Canada's leading gold producer with an output of 80.4 t, more
than one half of the national total. Most of this gold is mined
from lode deposits, especially from the three mines in the Hemlo
area and the two mines in the Red Lake area. Quebec, the second
largest gold-producing province, yielded 34 t in 2001, while British
Columbia produced 24.4 t. The northern territories together produced
11 t of gold while the Prairie and Atlantic provinces together accounted
for 10 t.
For more information
see gold.
Iron is a common
metal found in the earth's crust, where it occurs in combination
with other elements. These combinations constitute the iron minerals,
such as hematite and magnetite. The term "iron ore" is
used when the rock is sufficiently rich in the iron minerals to
be mined economically.
The Canadian
iron ore industry produces iron ore in several forms, including
pellets, concentrates and sinter of different grades and qualities.
Iron is the main element in steel – the metal so basic to industrial
society. Most iron ore, both in Canada and elsewhere, is extracted
from open-pit mines.
Of the four
major steel-producing regions in the world – Canada and the
United States, the Russian Federation, Japan, and Western Europe
– only the United States, Canada and the Russian Federation
have enough iron ore for their needs.
In Canada,
Newfoundland and Labrador is the largest iron ore producer, followed
by Quebec and British Colombia.
Canada is
one of the worlds largest producers and exporters of iron ore. In
the world market, the EEC countries, the United States and Japan
are Canada's biggest customers. One of the larger markets for Canadian
iron ore is, of course, the Canadian steel industry.
For more information
see iron.
Lead is a heavy,
malleable, bluish grey metal. It is one of the metals most resistant
to common corrosion problems.
The largest
single use of lead today is in the manufacture of the lead-acid
storage battery, a vital part of every automobile. The average car
battery contains about 10 kg of lead. In the communications industry,
lead is still used extensively as protective sheathing for underground
and underwater cables, including transoceanic cable systems. Certain
lead compounds are used as paint pigments. Red lead (lead oxide)
is the basic paint primer for iron and steel.
Almost all
lead is obtained from sulphide ores in which the most common lead
mineral is galena. It is usually found in combination with other
sulphide ores, most frequently those of zinc, and also those of
copper.
Orebodies
at or near the surface are mined by open-pit methods. When an orebody
occurs at some depth below the surface, it must be mined by underground
methods.
Canada is an
important world producer and supplier of refined lead, ranking sixth
in mine production after the United States, China, Germany, the
United Kingdom and Japan. In Canada, lead is produced mainly as
a co-product of zinc. Recycling of lead, mainly from scrapped car
batteries, is an important source of refined lead in Canada, representing
nearly 50% of the total refined production.
Nearly 90%
of Canadian exports of refined lead go to the United States.
For more information
see lead.
In Canada,
nickel occurs with varying amounts of sulphur, iron and copper,
plus smaller amounts of other important by-product metals such as
cobalt, gold, silver and platinum group metals. The ore is crystalline
in structure and is called a sulphide. Sulphide ores are usually
found in deeply extending veins, and are most often recovered by
means of underground mining.
Nickel is
mined in Thompson, Manitoba, in the Sudbury Basin of Ontario, and
in the Ungava peninsula of Quebec. After 2005, nickel production
is scheduled to commerce at Voisey's Bay in Newfoundland and Labrador.
Nickel will also be mined in Quebec.
Coinage is
an early use of nickel that has continued to grow over the years.
While, the Canadian dime and quarter were made of pure nickel and
the five-cent piece was made of cupro-nickel, they are now made
by plating nickel onto steel.
The greatest
demand for nickel in the alloyed state is in the production of a
wide range of stainless steels used in chemical and food-processing
equipment, transportation equipment, construction as building facings
and other architectural applications, and a vast array of consumer
items. Over 60% of primary nickel production is used to make stainless
steel. The second most important requirement for nickel is in the
production of high-nickel alloys, used in high-temperature and very
corrosive environments, particularly in the chemical, nuclear and
aerospace industries.
The world
mine production of nickel is small (1.1 Mt/y) compared to copper
(14 Mt) or aluminum (25 Mt) so its price is more volatile. Nickel
is also used in many other ways including batteries and fuel cells,
and as a catalyst in the hydrogenation of fats and oils.
The United
States is Canada's largest customer for nickel and accounts for
half of Canada's exports of refined nickel. About 40% of the nickel
mined in Canada is refined in Norway and the United Kingdom.
Canada is
the third largest nickel producer in the world after Russia and
Australia. The next largest are New Caledonia and Indonesia.
Stainless steel
is intensively recycled. Stainless steel producers buy, on average,
about 45% of their nickel supply from scrap sources and 55% from
primary sources.
For more information
see nickel.
Potash is one
of the three most important nutrients to plants, which are nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium.
Although the
overriding demand for potash is for use as a fertilizer, it does
have other uses. About 4% of total production goes into the manufacture
of soaps and detergents, glass and ceramic products, and de-icing.
Most potash
mining in Saskatchewan is conventional. That is, the ore is extracted
by sinking a shaft and digging the material out. The Saskatchewan
potash deposits occur in undisturbed, almost horizontal layers 2
m to 3 m thick.
Almost 95%
of the potash produced in Saskatchewan is exported. About 55% of
Saskatchewan production is shipped to the United States, mostly
to the northern part of the U.S. midwest. About 40% or so is shipped
to countries around the world, mainly through the port of Vancouver.
Potash is
also mined in New Brunswick. The potash mine, in addition to its
potential for serving the fertilizer market in Atlantic Canada,
is ideally located about 60 km from the ice-free port of Saint John
to supply the northeastern United States.
Canada has
the largest potash deposit in the world and is the world's largest
producer. Other major producing countries are Russia, Belarus, Germany,
Israel, Jordan and the United States.
Salt is such
a common part of our everyday existence that we rarely think of
it as a natural resource that must be discovered, mined, processed
and marketed. Yet salt is so vital to our lives that without it
we could perish. We are all benefactors of the rich deposits throughout
Canada that contribute to our well-being and our comfortable way
of life.
On a per-capita
basis, Canada is the largest user of salt in the world. Our high
consumption, which is about 360 kg (790 lb), of salt per person
per year, is due to severe winter conditions in many parts of the
country and our use of salt to improve winter driving conditions.
In Canada,
the chemical industry is one of the largest users of the resource.
Sodium chloride (NaCl), as it is known to the industry, is used
in the manufacture of chlorine, caustic soda and soda ash, three
of the most important products in the heavy chemical industry.
Canada's salt
reserves are estimated at more than 1 million billion tonnes. Salt,
or halite, as it is called in geological terms, is found in three
major rock formations.
In western
Canada, salt beds underlie a broad belt of the Prairie provinces
extending from the extreme southwestern corner of Manitoba northwestward
across Saskatchewan and into the north-central part of Alberta.
Depths vary from 180 m at Fort McMurray to more than 1830 m around
Edmonton.
Ontario salt
deposits are found on the edge of a saucer-shaped geological structure
known as the Michigan Basin, which underlies much of southwestern
Ontario. There are formations at depths of 275 m to 825 m and the
beds are from 90 m to over 200 m thick. These beds are also relatively
flat and undisturbed.
Isolated salt
deposits occur in a large sedimentary basin that underlies the northern
mainland of Nova Scotia, Cape Breton Island, Prince Edward Island,
the Madeleine Islands, and southwestern Newfoundland, and extends
westward under parts of New Brunswick. These salt beds are generally
folded and faulted.
Today in Canada
two major methods are used to obtain salt from its age- old deposits
– underground mining and brining. Recovery as a co-product
of potash mining is also practiced.
Canada ranks
among the top 10 salt producing countries. Other major producers
are the United States, China, Germany and India.
For more information
see sodium.
Zinc usually
occurs in association with copper or lead or both. Mining and milling
operations, therefore, recover these metals as co-products. In addition,
important minor by-products such as silver, gold and cadmium are
often recovered.
Orebodies
near the surface are often amenable to open-pit mining methods.
When an orebody is discovered at a greater depth, underground mining
is required.
The greatest
use for zinc is as a coating for iron and steel products to make
them resistant to rust and corrosion. The application of a zinc
coating, known as galvanizing, accounts for about 48% of worldwide
zinc use.
The most commonly
galvanized products are sheet and strip steel, tube and pipe, and
wire and wire rope. The automobile industry is the largest user
of galvanized steel.
The United
States is by far the biggest customer for Canadian refined zinc,
taking about 90% of total exports. Other major customers are Japan,
Hong Kong (China), Indonesia and Taiwan.
About 25%
of zinc concentrate exports go to Belgium. Other major customers
for Canadian zinc concentrate are Spain, Finland and Sweden.
Canada is
one of the largest producers and exporters of zinc, one of the modern
world's most useful metals.
For more information
see zinc.
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ALUMINUM
COAL
