A bolt of lightning shatters a pine and sends ribbons of fire
spreading through the undergrowth. Dry brush explodes into a wall
of flame that races through the forest, throwing sparks and smoke
hundreds of metres into the air...
Fire fascinates yet frightens us. At times it has been an ally,
at others, an enemy. In national
parks we have grappled with the issue of fire for over
100 years. For most of that time, park managers - and our society
- have viewed fire as a destructive force and extinguished it.
More recently, the science of ecology is telling us something completely
different. Fire is an essential part of nature. Eliminating fire
from ecosystems is like shutting out the wind or the rain. Yet this
is exactly what has happened.
What is the best way to reunite fire and the landscape? How do
we reconcile this new view of fire with protecting life and property
- both inside and outside national parks? This is the challenge
of fire management.
A fire rages in the crown of a Lodgepole
Pine stand.
© Parks Canada / Dave Smith
|
Renewer, Recycler and Rearranger...
Fire is old. It has been part of grassland, brush and forest ecosystems
for as long as they have existed. Like storms, avalanches and floods
it is a powerful force of change in nature. Fire has shaped landscapes
across Canada and around the world.
Many ecosystems have evolved with fire and depend on it for renewal.
A recent burn may seem dead but many forms of life survive, giving
rise to a new forest. Fire kick-starts regeneration by providing
ideal growing conditions.
In cool temperate areas, decay is slow and logs, leaves and needles
pile up on the forest floor. Fire reduces this material to mineral-rich
ash, releasing and recycling nutrients. Fire also creates openings
in the forest. Sunlight penetrates these gaps, warming the soil
and stimulating new growth from seeds and roots.
Fire creates the conditions that allow
the regeneration of a variety of plant species.
© Parks Canada / Victor Kafka,
1998
|
Over time, periodic fires create a vegetation mosaic of different
ages and types. This provides a rich variety of habitats that supports
many species of insects, mammals and birds.
This is biodiversity - it indicates a thriving ecosystem that is
likely to persist in the future. So fire not only renews and recycles,
but rearranges vegetation in a continual cycle of change.
Living with Fire
Many animals benefit from the effect
of fire
© Parks Canada
|
Many plants and animals are adapted to fires and the conditions
they create.
After a fire, woodpecker populations may increase fifty times!
They come to feast on bark beetles and other insects that colonize
the newly burned trees.
Aspen, raspberry and rose sprout vigorously from underground roots
after a fire passes. Moose and elk feed on this new growth.
Both lodgepole pine and
jack pine have resin-sealed cones that can stay on the tree for
many years. The heat of a fire melts the resin and the cones pop
open. Thousands of seeds scatter onto the ground and grow into solid
stands of pine.
The Canada lynx benefits from fires that maintain the forest mosaic.
It uses mature conifers for cover and hunts in recently burned areas
that support large populations of its favourite prey - the snowshoe
hare.
On Parks and Ecosystems...
"The task is to think of ourselves as within ecosystems..."
(Stan Rowe)
National parks protect examples of Canada's natural regions. Our
goal is to maintain whole ecosystems and the diversity of life within
them. Parks cannot survive alone; they depend on the sustainable
use of surrounding lands. Humans are part of this picture and our
actions, both inside and outside parks, will determine the future
of our wild lands.
Dwindling Flames
"It has been a long time since my father and my uncles
used to burn each spring. But we were told to stop. The country
has changed from what it used to be ... brush and trees where there
used to be lots of meadows and not so many animals as there were
before..." (76-year-old Cree elder)
Since the retreat of the glaciers about 10,000 years ago, both
lightning and humans have ignited the landscape. Across North America,
Aboriginal peoples set fires to herd game, create grazing areas
and keep travel routes open. In many areas they influenced vegetation
patterns. When Europeans arrived, Aboriginal populations declined
and the fires set by them ceased.
Fire truck from the early days of
firefighting in Canada’s National Parks.
© Parks Canada / Circa. 1915
|
Europeans brought different attitudes about fire and land-use.
At first they used fire to clear land. Later, they regarded fire
as a danger to permanent settlement and controlled it. As wilderness
was tamed so was wildfire.
Even in parks, fire was viewed as a destroyer of wildlife and scenic
beauty. "Only you can prevent forest fires," cautioned
Smokey Bear, who first appeared in 1950. Smokey's message, as well
as the development of modern fire-fighting equipment and techniques,
shut fire out of most ecosystems. For example, over the last 65
years, the area burned in the Rocky Mountain national parks has
dwindled to less than 10% of historic levels.
Losing the Mosaic
Intense crown fires create a landscape
mosaic that is very important for biodiversity.
© Parks Canada
|
Most researchers agree that fire suppression is altering many ecosystems.
Forests are becoming older and more closed-in. The open habitats
favoured by many species of wildlife are getting rarer. We are losing
the vegetation mosaic and the biodiversity it sustains. These effects
are far-reaching, for they affect not only parks but surrounding
lands as well.
Striking a Balance
A fire crew at work on the Sofa Mountain
Fire at Waterton Lakes National Park of Canada.
© Parks Canada / Randall Schwanke
/ 1998
|
In 1909, the first national park wardens were hired - primarily
to put out fires. Today's fire managers are working to sustain fire-dependent
ecosystems while still providing fire protection.
Restoring the Flame
What is the best way to restore fire? In most parks, we cannot
simply let nature take its course. There is too much risk to life
and property inside and outside parks. Remote parks may permit lightning
strikes to burn with little interference, but no fire is left unattended.
Parks staff lighting a prescribed fire
at La Mauricie National Park of Canada
© Parks Canada / Mike Etches
/ 2001
|
Instead, a program of 'prescribed' fire is used. These fires may
be started by lightning or by park staff. How they are managed is
planned beforehand. Trained specialists decide when, where and under
what limits such fires will be permitted to burn. They consider
weather, type of vegetation, fire behaviour and terrain in order
to burn safely and meet ecological goals.
Prescribed fire involves some risk. However, it is less than the
risk of letting wildfire burn unchecked or trying to exclude all
fire. Decades of fire suppression have created a build-up of dead
wood (fuel) in the forest. This can result in an extremely intense
fire. We can lower this hazard by prescribed burning or thinning
trees to reduce fuels around facilities and towns.
Parks Canada is studying the effects of fire on ecosystem integrity
and biodiversity. Research underway in many parks is revealing the
complex connections between fire, humans and the environment. As
new information arises, it is used to modify the next stage of the
fire program.
Helicopter dropping water onto a fire
© Parks Canada / Randall Schwanke
/ 1998
|
Working Together
Fire management is everyone's business. Parks Canada is working
with other groups to share ideas and ensure that fire management
planning addresses local and regional concerns.
Fire Protection
Some fires must always be extinguished. Parks Canada will continue
to protect people, property, neighbouring lands and rare natural
resources from wildfire.
From May to September, the fire hazard is monitored. If it rises,
Firefighters get ready for action. Small initial attack crews quickly
extinguish most fires. Fires that continue burning are assessed
and plans made to contain them.
To make fire fighting more effective and reduce costs, Parks Canada
shares crews and equipment with other agencies.
Isn't setting fires interfering with nature?
Landscapes untouched by humans are rare. Even in parks, we have
interfered with natural processes. For example, we have suppressed
fire for many years. Planned fire, whether lit by humans or lightning,
is the safest way to restore fire's ecological role.
Why not log instead of prescribed burning?
Logging offers few of the ecological benefits of fire. It removes
trees and nutrients, whereas fire recycles them. In many regions,
the plants that colonize logged sites are different from those appearing
after a fire. Economical logging requires roads and landings, severely
disrupting the ecosystems that national parks are mandated to protect.
How does smoke from forest fires affect park visitors and
communities?
Prescribed burns are conducted in weather conditions that disperse
smoke away from developed areas as much as possible. Studies done
on Firefighters indicate that the health risk to the public is low.
What happens to animals in a fire?
Fire rarely traps large mammals, although it may kill some small
animals and birds. However, over the long term, most species benefit
from the habitats created by fire. This can also improve wildlife
viewing opportunities.
How much does the fire management program cost?
The cost of prescribed fire ranges from $10 to $1,000 per hectare
depending on the size and nature of the burn. The average cost is
$80 per hectare. Fighting fires costs over ten times as much and
is not always successful.
For more information on fire management, contact the fire and
vegetation specialist at your nearest national park.
Creating a fireline using a torch slung
from a helicopter to manage a fire in Kootenay National Park
of Canada.
© Parks Canada / Dave Smith /
2001
|
|