Table of Contents
Executive summary
The province of Ontario provides vitally important
staging and breeding habitat for Western Hemisphere shorebirds.
Of 29 shorebird species commonly occurring in Ontario, major staging
concentrations of 14 species amass in the hundreds of thousands.
Of 40 species of shorebirds that breed routinely in Canada, 22 regularly
breed in Ontario, including significant proportions of the populations
of seven species.
However, of shorebirds regularly occurring in the province, populations
of at least 21 species are either suspected or confirmed to be in
long-term decline. There is a need for Ontario to join with the rest
of Canada, the United States, Mexico and other nations of the Western
Hemisphere to form a comprehensive shorebird conservation plan to
address hemispheric declines in many shorebird species.
A similar conservation initiative has been applied to waterfowl
for over a decade under the North American Waterfowl Management
Plan (NAWMP). Because of the success of this plan to both birds and
landowners, the same approach is being extended to other groups
of birds. Other initiatives, such as Partners in Flight (PIF), Important
Bird Areas (IBAs), Wings Over Water (WOW – the Canadian component
of the North American Waterbird Conservation Plan), Canadian Landbird
Monitoring Strategy, and Canadian and United States Shorebird Conservation
Plans, broaden bird conservation to include many additional species. The
North American Bird Conservation Initiative (NABCI) is attempting
to provide coordination among nations and peoples of this continent
to improve effectiveness of these various conservation initiatives.
The Ontario Shorebird Conservation Plan (OSCP) provides a working
complement in the Ontario region to the broader Canadian Shorebird
Conservation Plan to help sustain healthy shorebird populations
in North America.
The OSCP has been prepared by a committee representing a range
of government and non-government organizations, and is derived from
existing information and expert opinion in order to define the state
of the shorebird resource in Ontario, identify critical information
gaps and science needs, and to identify conservation measures that
can be acted on immediately. It is intended that this plan be updated
routinely as needed information comes available and further conservation
actions are determined.
The overall goals of the OSCP are to:
- sustain, and restore when necessary, the distribution, diversity,
and abundance of breeding and migrating shorebirds in Ontario;
ensure sufficient high-quality habitat to support healthy shorebird
populations in Ontario;
- ensure sufficient high-quality habitat to support healthy shorebird
populations in Ontario;
- ensure coordinated efforts are instituted to address vital conservation
issues for shorebirds in Ontario, based oninformation on conservation
needs and practices made widely available to decision makers,
land managers, and the public.
The specific objectives of the OSCP are to:
- determine population sizes and trends for each species breeding
in or migrating through Ontario;
- identify and evaluate habitat needs and significant sites for
breeding and migrating shorebirds in Ontario;
- establish conservation priorities for shorebirds in Ontario,
reflecting their ranking in the Canadian Plan, their biological
vulnerability, and the responsibility Ontarians share for these
species;
- identify Ontario-based causes of population decline and identify
the conservation actions needed to reduce or eliminate present
and potential threats to shorebirds and their habitats in Ontario;
encourage and, where possible, assist in mitigating causes of
declines in other parts of the hemisphere for those species which
are important to Ontario.
To achieve the above goals and objectives, the
following science needs are considered priorities:
- Accurately determine breeding distributions
and develop abundance estimates for northern breeding species,
and update knowledge of distribution and abundance for southern
breeding species.
- Monitor population trends of some northern
breeding species where possible, and of southern breeding species,
through enhanced use of existing surveys; for any species determined
to be in serious decline, identify the population parameters having
greatest effect on trend and the stressors impacting them in order
to develop and assess management programs.
- Accurately monitor total numbers of migrant
shorebirds passing through the province by studying the distribution
of birds and turnover rates in both northern staging concentrations
and more dispersed southern movements.
- In cooperation with other jurisdictions,
establish breeding origins, migratory pathways, and wintering
areas for breeding
and migrating shorebirds using Ontario habitats.
- Determine specific habitat requirements
of breeding and migrant shorebirds to identify critical habitat.
- Examine and determine the severity of potential
threats to shorebird populations.
These actions will contribute to the refining
of the following conservation and management strategies, aspects
of most of which can in fact be pursued immediately:
- Contribute to the development of land use
policies, habitat management plans, recovery plans, and site designations
of various types (e.g., Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network
and Important Bird Areas).
- Determine appropriate conservation actions
in response to active threats to shorebird populations.
- Monitor hunting pressure, and ensure that
harvest is at a level sustainable for the target populations.
- Develop educational initiatives to inform
the public and interest groups about shorebird biology, habitat,
and conservation requirements to increase understanding of the
value of shorebirds generally and of their importance in Ontario.
- Develop landowner and/or manager agreements
and experimental management activities to secure, protect, enhance,
and restore shorebird habitats.
The OSCP also provides information on the species occurring in
the province, their general distribution, status, and habitat
associations; outlines research programs that, in part at least,
have included shorebirds; discusses efforts toward avian conservation
in the province that directly or indirectly benefit shorebirds;
describes potential threats to populations; and indicates significant
areas
for shorebirds in the province. The communications section sets out
the direction and key messages to be put forth from the plan,
and the implementation section illustrates how a variety of partnerships
and programs can be integrated to further develop and
implement this plan.
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1.0 Introduction
1.1 Goals and Objectives
The vision of the Canadian Shorebird
Conservation Plan (CSCP: Donaldson et al.
2001) is to maintain healthy populations of shorebirds throughout
their range and diversity of habitats in Canada and throughout their
global range.
Its mission is to build the scientific
basis for shorebird conservation, identify and protect crucial habitat,
restore species that are declining, and establish links with other
countries that share Canada’s shorebirds.
The Ontario Shorebird Conservation Plan (OSCP) is to serve as a
working complement in Ontario to the broader national plan by providing
a provincial context and detailing specific conservation initiatives.
The goals of the OSCP are as follows:
- Populations
– to sustain, and restore when necessary, the distribution,
diversity, and abundance of breeding and migrating shorebirds
in Ontario;
- Habitats
– to ensure sufficient high-quality habitat to support healthy
shorebird populations in Ontario;
- Conservation
– to ensure coordinated efforts are instituted to address
vital conservation issues for shorebirds in Ontario, based on
information on conservation needs and practices made widely available
to decision makers, land managers, and the public.
Specific objectives of the OSCP are to:
- Determine population sizes and trends for
each species breeding in and migrating through Ontario;
- Identify and evaluate habitat needs and
significant sites for breeding and migrating shorebirds in Ontario;
- Identify Ontario-based causes of declines
in shorebird populations;
- Set conservation priorities for shorebirds
in Ontario, reflecting the ranking in the Canadian Plan, their
biological vulnerability, and the responsibility Ontarians share
for these species;
- Identify specific actions that can be taken
to reduce or eliminate present and potential threats to shorebirds
and their habitats in Ontario; and,
- Identify and, where possible, assist in
reducing or eliminating causes of declines in other parts of the
hemisphere of those species which are important to Ontario.
1.2 Ontario
in the National Perspective
Ontario environments play a significant role in the annual cycle
of shorebirds in Canada, with respect to both migrating and breeding
components of their populations. The importance to shorebirds stems,
in part, from James Bay and Hudson Bay, which extend far south into
the province (Figure 1), and provide a major migration route for
arctic-nesting species. The Hudson Bay and James Bay coasts of Ontario
host internationally and likely hemispherically significant numbers
of migratory shorebirds (Morrison et al.
1995). While single counts of migratory shorebirds in northern Ontario
have so far not equalled those in the Bay of Fundy on the east coast,
the Fraser Delta on the west coast, or the aggregate of prairie
migrants at many locations, the full extent of the shorebird passage
through northern Ontario has yet to be determined. Likewise, the
magnitude of breeding shorebird populations in the vast mosaic of
wetlands covering nearly a third of the province in the Hudson Bay
Lowlands is unresolved. This is potentially one of the most significant
breeding areas for boreal nesting shorebirds in Canada.
The northern coasts of Ontario serve as major staging areas for
southbound migratory shorebirds from arctic and boreal areas of
Canada. It is likely that several million shorebirds touch down
at one or more places along the north coast to replenish fat reserves
essential for long flights to staging areas on the Atlantic coast
or to wintering areas in South America. Major concentrations of
14 species, along with considerable numbers of nine other species
are found here over a period of two months or more each summer and
autumn. The Hudson Bay and James Bay coasts are known to be of hemispheric
significance to staging flocks of Red Knot and Hudsonian Godwit
(Morrison et al. 1995), and probably to other
species. Many of these species may also touch down here on northward
spring migrations. The extent of spring use is less well understood,
but should not be underestimated.
Northern Ontario (Figure 2A), particularly the expansive wetlands
of the Hudson Bay Lowlands (Figure 1), hosts large breeding populations
of 10 shorebird species and smaller numbers of 12 others. Particularly
significant here are populations of breeding Marbled and Hudsonian
godwits. An isolated Marbled Godwit population found almost entirely
within Ontario, and on Akimiski Island (Nunavut), is small and of
uncertain status. The Hudsonian Godwits in the Hudson Bay Lowlands
may represent as much as 50 percent of the entire Canadian population,
much of that in Ontario. The Hudson Bay Lowlands may also provide
the most extensive suitable habitat in Canada for boreal nesting
shorebirds such as Greater Yellowlegs, Lesser Yellowlegs, and Common
Snipe.
Southern Ontario (Figure 2B) regularly hosts 25 species of migratory
shorebirds in substantial numbers, with smaller numbers of 10 others.
Although large concentrations are restricted to a few locations
such as Presqu’ile and the onion fields in the south-west,
most migrant shorebirds are found widely dispersed in smaller numbers
among the many small wetlands, river and lake shores, and sewage
lagoons inland, as well as countless places along the entire length
of the Great Lakes coasts. Shorebirds are very opportunistic in
their use of every wetland, capable of exploiting the smallest areas,
as well as those varying in water levels from year to year. It is
likely that tens of thousands regularly use southern habitats during
both migration periods.
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Southern Ontario also hosts six species of breeding shorebirds,
including populations of American Woodcock and Upland Sandpiper,
that are of conservation concern. The Great Lakes shores were formerly
a breeding area for a population of Piping Plovers now considered
endangered in the province. A few may still nest occasionally in
the northwest at Lake of the Woods but none were noted there during
the 2001 census (C. Gratto- Trevor, pers. comm.).
The northern coasts of Ontario have been identified as exceptionally
important not only to shorebirds, but also to waterfowl and other
species. North coast habitat preservation must be a focus of conservation
efforts. The concentrations of shorebirds occurring there also provide
unique opportunities for study and monitoring. In southern Ontario,
conservation of known important sites is also a priority; however,
there is also a need to assess the importance of more widely dispersed
habitats to breeding and migrating shorebirds. A summary of the
29 species of shorebirds that regularly occur in Ontario, with population
trends, conservation priorities, and migratory and breeding status,
are given in Tables 1 and 2. Together these summaries indicate most
importantly that population declines are suspected or confirmed
for at least 21 of these species.
The significance of Ontario to shorebirds is emphasized throughout
this plan. However, conservation efforts for shorebirds will often
overlap with those for other bird species, with mutual benefits.
The OSCP forms part of the CSCP, with the latter plan providing
the framework for conservation at a national and international level
and the Ontario plan providing prioritized goals for implementation
of conservation efforts. Shorebird conservation in Canada is linked
to the United States Shorebird Conservation Plan (Brown et
al. 2000) through cooperative programs. As other shorebird
conservation efforts develop elsewhere in the hemisphere, such as
the Mexican Shorebird Conservation Initiative, similar linkages
are expected. The integration of conservation for all birds at a
landscape level is now being undertaken through the North American
Bird Conservation Initiative (NABCI). To facilitate this integration,
the continent has been divided into ecological units called Bird
Conservation Regions (BCRs) that provide a geographical basis for
planning. Ontario contains parts of four BCRs (Nos. 7, 8, 12, and
13 – see Figure 1) of which two (7 in the north and 13 in
the south) are the most important for shorebird conservation. BCRs
are referenced throughout this document to support the planning
process.
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In Canada, NABCI will provide the framework that integrates and
coordinates four bird conservation initiatives: the CSCP for shorebirds,
the North American Waterfowl Management Plan (NAWMP), Partners in
Flight (PIF) for landbirds, and Wings Over Water (WOW) for other
waterbirds. Some of Ontario’s wetlands critical for shorebirds
are also internationally recognized, or candidates for recognition,
under complementary programs of the Western Hemisphere Shorebird
Reserve Network (WHSRN), the Ramsar Convention, and Important Bird
Areas (IBAs) program. Lastly, Ontario’s plan is directly linked
with the Species at Risk Act and the Committee on the Status of
Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC).
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1.3 Shorebird
Conservation in Ontario
1.3.1 HISTORY
Subsistence hunting for shorebirds has probably
contributed at least in a minor way to the food of aboriginal peoples
(Sadler 1994) without affecting populations. Hunting for both the
market and personal food, including the taking of large numbers
of shorebirds, was a commonly practiced activity in southern Ontario
in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (Foster 1978,
Smith 1998). Such activities in many parts of North America caused
declines of some shorebird species. This was also a period when
egg collecting was a wildly popular activity (Peck and Richards
1994). With the passage of the Migratory Birds Convention Act of
1917, all shorebirds were afforded protection. Hunting seasons in
autumn were retained only for American Woodcock and Common Snipe,
and remain in effect today. The passage of the Ontario Endangered
Species Act in 1971 (McKeating and Bowman 1977) was aimed at affording
protection to species like the Piping Plover.
Most naturalist groups were founded to promote nature study, but
also to encourage the need for conservation of wildlife (McNicholl
and Cranmer-Byng 1994). With growing public awareness, the conservation
value of wetlands and shorelines has also been increasingly recognized.
Habitat securement, restoration, enhancement, and creation have
come to be of primary importance in the maintenance of wildlife
populations, and have become a focus of many conservation efforts. Yet,
even in recent years, wetlands of importance to shorebirds and other
wildlife continue to be degraded, drained, and filled.
1.3.2 SHOREBIRD
RESEARCH AND MONITORING IN ONTARIO
Little specific shorebird research and monitoring had taken place
in Ontario prior to the early 1970s (James in prep.). Although various
banding projects date back to 1905 in Ontario (McNicholl 1994),
the first monitoring and banding of a longterm nature followed the
establishment of Long Point Bird Observatory in 1960. Several shorebird-specific
studies appeared under the Long Point banner (e.g., Bradstreet et
al. 1977, Nol and Lambert 1984, Page 1967, Page and Bradstreet
1968, Page and Middleton 1972). While monitoring and banding of
shorebirds have not been a major focus of Long Point Bird Observatory
or other bird observatories now operating in Ontario, these stations
can still provide useful monitoring information on species like
Killdeer, American Woodcock and Common Snipe.
Shorebird studies in northern Ontario began with Canadian Wildlife
Service projects in 1963 and 1965, when Leslie Tuck banded about
1,500 Common Snipe in southern James Bay (Tuck 1967). Additional
banding took place near Winisk (Tuck 1968). In 1974, a comprehensive
shorebird banding and marking project was initiated in James Bay
by Guy Morrison (Morrison 1976, 1978), which continued into the
early 1980s. This study became part of an international effort to
document distribution, migration, and population sizes of shorebirds
in the Western Hemisphere. Aerial surveys of sections of the coastlines
have been undertaken since the mid 1970s, and five surveys (May
to October) in 1990 identified peak migration periods and concentration
points. A number of late August surveys added more distributional
information, and indicated potential bias from wind and tidal influences.
This work has clearly indicated the importance of the northern coastal
areas to staging migrant shorebirds and identified several areas
that should be part of the WHSRN (Morrison et al.
1995).
The North American Breeding Bird Survey, coordinated by the Canadian
Wildlife Service, has been operating in Ontario since 1968 (Downes
and Collins 1996). In 2001, there were 122 active routes, concentrated
in southern and central Ontario. It provides information on six
shorebird species, but probably yields sufficient information to
be useful in monitoring populations only for Upland Sandpiper and
part of the ranges of Killdeer and Spotted Sandpiper.
The Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources has coordinated singing
ground counts of American Woodcock, and to a lesser extent Common
Snipe, in Ontario for about 35 years. There are about 50 routes
active, mostly in southern and central Ontario. Migratory game bird
harvest statistics have also been compiled for both species for
a similar period by the Canadian Wildlife Service.
The Ontario Nest Records Scheme began compiling nesting records
of birds in 1956. Published literature and private field notes have
been searched for additional records prior to that time. There are
more than 3,100 shorebird records on file now, mainly for Killdeer,
Spotted Sandpiper, and American Woodcock. Historical Piping Plover
records are also a significant holding (Peck 2000).
The Ontario Shorebird Survey was initiated in Ontario by the Canadian
Wildlife Service in 1974 as part of an international shorebird survey
effort in North America, attempting to gather population estimates,
and identify trends in numbers. It is helping to identify important
areas for migrant shorebirds in southern Ontario (R.K. Ross, pers.
comm.).Volunteers following standard protocols gather counts and
estimates of both spring and autumn migrant shorebirds. Nearly 100
sites have received some coverage, mainly near the lower Great Lakes.
Participation and continuity have not been as high as desired, but
enough information has been gathered to suggest declining trends
for 14 species, one of which was statistically significant (Ross
et al. 2001). This survey will contribute
to the internationally coordinated Program for Regional and International
Shorebird Monitoring (PRISM). PRISM was initiated to meet the monitoring
needs of the Canadian and United States shorebird plans, with the
vision that reliable and timely information on the status and trends
of all shorebird populations that breed in North America will contribute
to their long-term conservation. The program is divided into four
main strategies designed to give accurate indications of shorebird
distribution, trends, and abundance, including surveys of temperate
non-breeding shorebirds on migration such as the Ontario Shorebird
Survey, surveys of breeding birds in arctic and boreal regions,
surveys of temperate breeding shorebirds, and surveys at southern
latitudes of non-breeding birds.
Annual breeding waterfowl surveys of central and north-eastern
Ontario carried out since 1990 as part of the Black Duck Joint Venture
of NAWMP have provided useful distribution and trend information
for Spotted and Solitary sandpipers.
Numerous volunteers and naturalist club members gather local bird
sightings that are contributed to American Birds/Field Notes, provincial
and national park records, the Natural Heritage Information Centre
(Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources), breeding bird atlas programs,
and rare breeding bird programs; the recently established ONTBIRD
Web site has become a very important resource for sighting information.
Much of our knowledge of shorebird distribution and abundance comes
from the efforts of volunteers.
1.3.3 CONSERVATION
OF SHOREBIRD HABITAT IN ONTARIO
Several programs are active in Ontario that will help to identify,
protect and enhance habitats that are of importance to shorebirds. The
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands was drafted in 1971 to draw international
attention to serious threats to wetlands recognized to be of international
importance. Canada became a signatory in 1981, pledging to maintain
the ecological, zoological, botanical, limnological, and hydrological
significance of designated wetlands. In Ontario, eight sites have
been designated (Ramsar Convention Bureau 1998), protecting 2,449,528
hectares of wetlands, including Point Pelee National Park, St. Clair
National Wildlife Area, Long Point, the Southern James Bay Migratory
Bird Sanctuaries, Polar Bear Provincial Park, Matchedash Bay Provincial
Wildlife Area, and Mer Bleue Conservation Area (Figure 2). These
sites provide valuable resources for migrant shorebirds and in the
case of Polar Bear Provincial Park, to breeding shorebirds.
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A major program, directed specifically at shorebirds, is the WHSRN,
which is an international initiative to promote shorebird conservation
throughout their ranges in the Western Hemisphere. WHSRN is both
a network of people and a network of key shorebird habitats. Individuals
and organizations are encouraged to work in partnership with others
locally and within the network. Through this program, critical habitats/sites
are designated as hemispherically, internationally, or regionally
important, or essential for endangered species (Morrison et
al. 1995), depending upon overall numbers and proportions
of populations using the sites. While no site has been officially
designated in Ontario, the west coast of James Bay is considered
to be potentially of hemispheric importance, and four stretches
of the coastline are identified as concentration areas (Figure 3A).
Also identified is a potentially internationally important site
on the Hudson Bay coast around the Pen Islands. On Lake of the Woods,
Sable Islands, now designated as a provincial nature reserve in
the provincial parks system, have been identified as potential Endangered
Species sites. Piping Plover may still breed in these areas, the
last known nesting sites in the province. Three regionally important
sites in southern Ontario at Presqu’ile Provincial Park, the
western end of Lake Ontario, and the onion fields and St. Clair
Lowlands of south-western Ontario are also being considered.
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The IBA program is a site-based initiative that builds on existing
bird conservation efforts. It is a conservation program of Birdlife
International (formerly International Council for Bird Preservation
– ICBP) and is implemented in Canada by the Canadian Nature
Federation and Bird Studies Canada. Its aim is to identify and encourage
the protection of a worldwide network of sites to ensure the long-term
viability of naturally occurring bird populations. Sites are designated
in four categories as providing habitat for threatened species,
restricted-range species, biome-restricted or biomerepresentative
species, and congregatory species. More than 130 sites have been
nominated as IBAs throughout Ontario. Collectively, these sites
provide breeding habitat for a few shorebird species and migratory
foraging areas for many species. Most of the northern coastal areas,
of vital importance to hundreds of thousands of migrant shorebirds,
have been nominated. More than 30 areas, used to some extent by
shorebirds, had been designated by early 2000 (Figure 3).
The NAWMP was initiated in 1986 by the governments of Canada and
the United States in response to declining waterfowl numbers and
wetland habitat losses across the continent. Mexico became signatory
to the Plan in 1994, making it a truly continental conservation
effort. Established in 1989, the Eastern Habitat Joint Venture (EHJV)
covers eastern Canada and is one of 17 NAWMP joint ventures instituted
across the continent – including the Ontario EHJV. Ontario’s
EHJV partners1 have an interest in conserving priority wetland and
upland habitats, and promoting ecologically sound and sustainable
land use practices. Over the past decade, the partners have secured
over 203,796 hectares of wetland and upland habitat, with enhancements
to over 115,380 additional hectares.
Since many habitats used by waterfowl are important to other species,
including shorebirds, the EHJV partnership is taking steps to better
meet shorebird habitat conservation needs in some projects. This
expansion is taking place under the NABCI, which aims to bring together
partnerships for the conservation and management of habitats required
by all bird species. A pilot project has been completed by Ducks
Unlimited Canada, in partnership with Bird Studies Canada, to create
a 0.8 hectare mudflat habitat for migrating shorebirds near Long
Point, in conjunction with restoring a two-hectare wetland in Port
Rowan. The mudflat will be managed specifically for shorebirds and
the overall, long-term success of this project will be monitored.
A second initiative, undertaken between Ducks Unlimited Canada and
the Township of West Perth, has been the development of a 10-hectare
shorebird management site at the decommissioned Mitchell Sewage
Lagoon.
Another core initiative of the EHJV is the Ontario Wetland Habitat
Fund, administered by Wildlife Habitat Canada. It is a long-term,
landowner-based wetland stewardship program that engages property
owners in wetland conservation work. Aside from marsh restoration
and enhancement work, the program also encourages wetland re-establishment
in regions such as extreme south-western Ontario. In the Essex region,
for example, more than 60 landowners have excavated small, shallow
wetlands in the heavily drained and deforested landscape. Some are
variations on the “wader scrape” used to encourage shorebird
use in the United Kingdom, modified here to encourage waterfowl
pairing and breeding.
The Great Lakes Wetlands Conservation Action Plan (1994) was developed
by the Canadian Wildlife Service and the Ontario Ministry of Natural
Resources, with support from the Nature Conservancy of Canada, the
Federation of Ontario Naturalists, and numerous non-government organizations
as a major habitat initiative under the Canada-Ontario Agreement
Respecting the Great Lakes Basin Ecosystem. Its aims are to rehabilitate
and protect 6,000 hectares of wetland habitat every five years. This
will benefit marsh nesting shorebirds, particularly Spotted Sandpiper
and Common Snipe, and provide habitat of importance to many species
of shorebirds that migrate on a broad front through the Great Lakes
region.
Many of the federal National Parks (186,521 hectares), National
Wildlife Areas (4,883 hectares), Migratory Bird Sanctuaries (39,094
hectares), Provincial Parks (4,265,918 hectares), and various provincial
conservation reserves (1,537,194 hectares) protect important shorebird
habitats in Ontario. See Figure 2 for those protected areas known
to be significant for shorebirds.
Other agencies, groups, policies and programs that can provide
either direct or indirect institutional support to shorebird conservation
are listed in Appendix
2.
1 Ontario Eastern Habitat Joint Venture
partners include the Canadian Wildlife Service, Ontario Ministry
of Natural Resources, Ducks Unlimited Canada, the Nature Conservancy
of Canada, Wildlife Habitat Canada and the Ontario Ministry of Agriculture
and Food.
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2.0 Breeding Shorebirds
in Ontario
2.1 Introduction
Ontario has a wide range of habitats available
to breeding shorebirds. Twenty-two species are regularly found nesting
here (Table 3; James 1991) and one other (American Avocet) has been
known to nest occasionally. Northern Ontario is a more important
breeding area than southern Ontario for most of these species. Huge
areas of fens and bogs are scattered through the boreal forests,
and blanket the Hudson Bay Lowlands covering nearly a third of the
province, providing extensive habitat for boreal nesters. The coastal
and tundra strip near the James Bay and Hudson Bay coasts attracts
a variety of arctic and subarctic nesters. The extensive coastal
marshes provide important habitat for several others. Species typical
of more prairie-like conditions may extend as far eastward as the
western Rainy River District and southern Ontario. The many lakes
and rivers, which cover over a sixth of the province, provide shorelines
and associated wetlands for other shorebird species.
2.2 Occurrence,
Status, and Habitats of Breeding Shorebirds in Ontario
A summary of Ontario’s breeding shorebird species, their
status, and habitat choices is found in Table 3; distribution maps
for most
species (from Cadman et al. 1987) are presented
in Appendix 1. Killdeer,
Spotted Sandpiper, and Common Snipe are the most common and widespread
species, being found almost everywhere in the province. Killdeer
is far more common in the south, doing very well in open and disturbed
environments, even nesting on rooftops. In forested areas to the
north, it becomes increasingly rare and, while it even occurs in
the Hudson Bay Lowlands, the wetlands there are typically too vegetated
except in tidal marshes to be attractive to this species. Spotted
Sandpipers breed along the narrow strips of shoreline around rivers
and lakes throughout the province. Common Snipe can be found in
a variety of wetlands anywhere, and probably is more numerous in
the extensive northern wetlands.
Greater Yellowlegs, Lesser Yellowlegs, and Solitary Sandpiper are
common and widespread in the north. The former two are mostly found
in the northern third of the province in the wetlands of the Hudson
Bay Lowlands, but penetrate somewhat farther south into the boreal
forests. The Solitary Sandpiper prefers wooded ponds and wetlands
across the north and a few may breed as far south as Manitoulin
Island.
Locally common along the northern coasts are Semipalmated Plover,
Least Sandpiper, Dunlin, and Red-necked Phalarope. They are most
abundant in tundra areas near the Hudson Bay coast, and all but
Dunlin extend southward in small numbers along the coastal marshes
most of the length of James Bay. Eight other species are less numerous
in the northern tundra strip. The least common are American Golden-Plover,
Semipalmated Sandpiper, and Pectoral Sandpiper, which are found
mainly in the extreme north-eastern corner near Cape Henrietta Maria. The
numbers of Pectoral Sandpipers seem to fluctuate considerably such
that some years there may be very few present.
Whimbrel, Hudsonian Godwit, and Stilt Sandpiper are more evenly
spread across the Hudson Bay coastal tundra areas, and a few are
found along the northern part of the James Bay coast. Marbled Godwits
are found mainly in the southern James Bay coastal marshes (and
on Akimiski Island – Nunavut). This population is apparently
completely isolated from Canadian prairie populations (Gibson and
Kessel 1989, Gratto-Trevor 2000), and its status is of concern.
A few Marbled Godwits from the Canadian prairie population have
also been found nesting in prairie-like areas in the western Rainy
River District. The Short-billed Dowitcher is a bird of greater
mystery than any of the others. There are so few reports it is uncertain
how many there are or just where they may be. They certainly nest
along the Hudson Bay coast, and on Akimiski Island, but may also
occur in more interior areas and along the James Bay coast.
Also in northern Ontario is the endangered Piping Plover. It was
once much more widespread where extensive sand beaches were available
around the shores of the Great Lakes. Today it has all but disappeared
from Ontario. Only two breeding sites in the Lake of the Woods near
Rainy River have been occasionally used in recent years.
Three other species are more usual in southern Ontario, but their
ranges also extend northward. Most common is the American Woodcock,
widespread in the south where swampy woods and upland thickets with
adjacent clearings for display and nesting provide habitat. They
are also found across parts of northern Ontario in smaller numbers. The
Upland Sandpiper is uncommon and much more restricted in distribution
to southern Ontario where it frequents large, grassy fields. A few
are also found near Thunder Bay and in western Rainy River district
in the north. Wilson’s Phalarope is very thinly scattered across
southern Ontario, often associated with sewage ponds, and a few
are found in southern James Bay coastal marshes, and the Lake of
the Woods area. It has been expanding its range in the past few
decades within the province.
Not included in Table 3
is a single breeding record of American Avocet from Lake of the
Woods (Lamey 1981). It is unlikely to be a regular nester in the
province, but additional breeding should be watched for as it is
being seen more regularly in the province. There has also been a
single Purple Sandpiper seen in the Cape Henrietta Maria area in
summer in what appeared to be appropriate habitat (Cadman et
al. 1987), but there has been no evidence of breeding.
2.3 Significant
Areas
The greatest diversity of Ontario’s breeding shorebird species
is found in the areas along and adjacent to the Hudson and James
Bay coasts. Many of the species occurring there have among the most
restricted ranges in the province. These northern coastal areas
must be seen as essential habitat in the province for nesting shorebirds.
Much of these shoreline areas now receive protection in Polar Bear
Provincial Park, but large areas still lack any protection other
than that provided by inaccessibility.
The few islands in southern Lake of the Woods, part of a sand spit
archipelago, are the only remaining habitat known to be recently
used by the Piping Plover in Ontario. However, relatively undisturbed
extensive sandy shorelines on the southern Great Lakes, such as
on Long Point in Lake Erie, south-eastern Lake Huron in the Port
Franks/Pinery Provincial Park area, and the south shores of Manitoulin
Island, should also be considered essential if we ever expect to
have Piping Plovers return to the Great Lakes to breed. Long Point,
which is protected under federal and provincial statutes, has been
long recognized to have shoreline of outstanding importance, and
Pinery Provincial Park protects some more habitats, but other areas
need to be clearly identified and afforded protection.
The nesting habitats for other shorebirds are much
more dispersed, which makes it difficult to identify
areas needing special protection. The alvars and
limestone plains of the Great Lakes region, such as
the Carden Plain (Pittaway 1999), may be among the
most important for Upland Sandpiper, but are only a
part of their range. The taiga of the Hudson Bay
Lowlands is key for three or four shorebird species,
as well as for waterfowl and other species.
Top
3.0 Migrating Shorebirds
in Ontario
3.1 Introduction
Many North American species of shorebirds tend
to migrate toward the Atlantic coast when moving south in autumn,
and to return north through the centre of the continent (James in
prep.). As a result, the largest numbers of migrants are seen in
Ontario in autumn. These migrants also tend to concentrate in relatively
small areas of high food abundance, to fatten up in preparation
for long southward flights. On their return in spring, birds are
moving rapidly, in a more dispersed fashion, or shift toward the
centre of the continent, and considerably fewer of the arctic nesting
species are likely to be seen.
In northern Ontario, huge concentrations of 14 species on migration
are seen in coastal areas, as well as smaller but often significant
numbers of 15 other species. There may be more than 100,000 birds
at one time on one section of shoreline. Overall numbers for all
species are uncertain, but probably in aggregate several million
birds congregate there to take advantage of the food resources over
the course of each autumn. At present we can only speculate on the
extent of the importance of these shores to most of the abundant
migrants that congregate there. The wide intertidal flats provide
an abundance of the bivalve Macoma balthica, and in southern James
Bay, the gastropod Hydrobia minuta, as well as a variety of other
crustaceans, worms and dipteran larvae (Morrison and Gaston 1986).
In southern Ontario, such vast concentrations are not seen although
moderately large numbers are found at several sites. Instead, the
birds tend to be widely dispersed among many ponds, marshes or fields,
and along the Great Lakes shorelines. They seem very opportunistic
and adept at finding and using many widely dispersed and annually
variable small sites. They use a variety of mudflats, beaches, and
marshes around ponds, lakes, and rivers, as well as sewage ponds,
wet fields, and pastures for foraging. Twenty-one species are found
in small flocks ranging up to several hundred individuals, along
with very low numbers of 14 other species. Mainly, the species that
nest in the interior of the province leave on migration without
concentrating in any numbers; this makes it difficult to estimate
population sizes and trends from migrating numbers.
3.2
Occurrence, Status and Habitats of Migrating Shorebirds in Ontario
The 35 species of shorebirds that regularly migrate from or through
Ontario are listed in Table
4, which also includes an assessment of
their relative abundance in various areas, and the main habitats
used. Fourteen of these species (Black-bellied Plover, American Golden-
Plover, Semipalmated Plover, Greater Yellowlegs, Lesser Yellowlegs, Whimbrel,
Hudsonian Godwit, Red Knot, Sanderling, Semipalmated Sandpiper,
Least Sandpiper, White-rumped Sandpiper, Pectoral Sandpiper, and
Dunlin) gather in large numbers on the north coast in autumn where
the wide tidal mudflats, and intertidal marshes are the main attraction. Thirteen
of these species, the exception being the Hudsonian Godwit, are
also found widely but lightly dispersed in autumn in the south where
they use a variety of mudflats, beaches, and marshes around ponds,
lakes, and rivers, as well as sewage ponds, wet fields, and pastures
for foraging. In the spring, they may all be found in the north
or south in dispersed, smaller numbers. However, they do not gather
in the major concentrations on the north coast as found in the autumn,
and spring use may also vary with the phenology of melt above the
tidal flats.
The northern coasts are particularly important to Hudsonian Godwit,
Red Knot, and Dunlin. More than 17,000 Hudsonian Godwits may concentrate
at one time, representing more than 20 percent of the estimated
total population (Morrison et al. 2001b).
Up to 15,000 Red Knots have been counted in a single survey, representing
10 to 20 percent of the entire known wintering population (Morrison
et al. 2001b). In total, a far higher percentage
of each species’ population may use these areas over the course
of the autumn migration, taking turnover into account. The large
concentrations of Dunlin complete a full prebasic molt along these
shores before continuing their autumn migration (R.I.G. Morrison,
pers. comm.).
Although Greater and Lesser Yellowlegs form large flocks on the
north coast, these may still represent a relatively small proportion
of the population as these species tend to migrate on a broad front.
Six other species (Killdeer, Solitary Sandpiper, Spotted Sandpiper,
Upland Sandpiper, Common Snipe, and American Woodcock) also seldom
congregate although small flocks of some of these species may occasionally
be seen. Most frequent a variety of mudflats, shores, and shallow
open marshy situations such as wet pastures although Killdeer and
Upland Sandpiper prefer uplands and American Woodcock are found
almost exclusively in wooded areas.
Five species (Marbled Godwit, Ruddy Turnstone, Stilt Sandpiper,
Short-billed Dowitcher, and Red-necked Phalarope) also gather on
the north coasts to take advantage of coastal marshes and intertidal
mudflats, but their numbers are smaller (flocks rarely larger than
the low hundreds) and more dispersed. These five also appear across
the rest of the province in small groups or singles. Marbled Godwit
and Red-necked Phalarope are rare anywhere except the north coasts.
Ten other species are regular in small numbers, often just individuals,
as migrants in Ontario (American Avocet, Willet, Western Sandpiper,
Baird’s Sandpiper, Purple Sandpiper, Buffbreasted Sandpiper,
Ruff, Long-billed Dowitcher, Wilson’s Phalarope, and Red Phalarope).
While any of the 10 could be found in either the north or south,
they are more frequently recorded where there are more observers
– in the south. The Ruff is an immigrant from Eurasia, that
may now be breeding somewhere in North America, as individuals are
occasionally seen on migration in Ontario (Pittaway 1999). Not included
in Table 4 is the Piping
Plover that no longer appears regularly in Ontario as a migrant,
although an occasional one can still be seen. The Eskimo Curlew
was also a rare migrant through Ontario but may now be extinct.
3.3 Key Sites
used by Migrating Shorebirds
The most essential habitats for migrant shorebirds are the wide
intertidal mudflats and marshes along the James and Hudson Bay coasts,
where hundreds of thousands of birds gather. While certain areas
are identified as holding larger concentrations, the entire shoreline
is of importance at various times and as conditions change seasonally,
annually, and over the years.
Apart from the north coast, birds tend to be widely dispersed
and take advantage of many areas, even small ponds, marshes and
flooded fields. The shores, mudflats, and swamps associated with
ponds, sewage lagoons, rivers, and lakes, offer resting and foraging
opportunities for migrants. The most important of interior
shores are those associated with the southern Great Lakes. A few
areas such as Presqu’ile Provincial Park, the western end
of Lake
Ontario, Long Point, Point Pelee onion fields and Hillman Marsh,
and the fields and marshes near Lake St. Clair, are noted for some
of the largest numbers of migrant shorebirds in the south (see
Figure 3B). However, there is a need to more clearly identify the
use and significance of many other areas that are used
opportunistically by migrants (Pittaway 1999). In aggregate, these
shores provide foraging sites for thousands of birds, but the full
extent of passage migrant numbers in the south is not clear.
Top
4.0 Existing and Potential
Threats to Shorebirds and their Environment
Shorebirds are subject to a wide range of threats
throughout their life cycle, which can extend from the Arctic to
South America. Several such stressors continue to affect shorebirds
in Ontario. Most of these factors are directly related to human
activity, and hence are felt most strongly in southern Ontario where
most people reside. The greatest danger may arise from the cumulative
impact of several threats operating in an area. Northern Ontario
shorebirds have encountered minimal threats on breeding and staging
areas. However, we may still be seeing the legacy of actions that
reduced populations of migrants a century earlier, or continuing
threats far away in other countries. Overarching all of these is
climate change, the implications of which are not well understood.
Urbanization
Human population growth results in increased pressures on all forms
of habitat, especially wetlands by encouraging drainage and through
such activities as increased recreational use, the development of
subdivisions and industrial parks, or conversion to agricultural
uses. Increased housing development contributes to disturbance by
people and their cats and dogs, along with contributing to enhanced
populations of opossums, raccoons, foxes, coyotes, rats, and gulls,
all of which prey on shorebird eggs
and young, and even adult shorebirds. Increased predator populations
may have contributed to the disappearance of the Piping Plover from
the southern Great Lakes. Killdeer, and to some extent Upland Sandpiper
and American Woodcock, are species that may have benefited in the
past from human disturbance through agriculture and forestry; however,
habitat loss through urbanization may be a significant negative
influence now. Similar concerns may be appropriate for Common Snipe
and Spotted Sandpiper.
Wetland Losses and Degradation
Significant wetland losses everywhere south of the Canadian Shield
in Ontario have led to the disappearance of 83 percent of the original
coastal and interior wetlands in the south-west, with losses approaching
95 percent in some counties (Snell 1987). Wetland drainage and conversion
to agriculture have been major causes of wetland loss (Environment
Canada 1991). Wetlands are also being degraded by invasive plants,
use by livestock, and pollution.
Water flow, which has been severely altered by landscape settlement
and development, has certainly affected Common Snipe and American
Woodcock populations. Cover removal for farming, residential and
industrial growth, or through forestry practices allows rapid runoff,
affecting water quality by increasing sedimentation and contaminant
flow. It also decreases infiltration of rainfall, diminishes groundwater
reserves, lowers water tables, and decreases the watershed capacity
to sustain dry-season water flow and marshland water levels (Riley
and Mohr 1994).
Migrant shorebirds make use of every pond, marsh and swamp that
offer food as thousands move across the land twice each year. We
can only speculate on the effect that the loss of southern wetlands
has had on use by migrants. Fortunately, there are still thousands
of lakes, rivers, and ponds, and, in fact, some foraging habitat
has also been provided by municipal sewage facilities. With restrictions
currently in place on the destruction of some wetlands, they will
continue to provide foraging opportunities; however, they are being
degraded to some extent by introduced plant species and water level
stabilization. Water levels maintained artificially high or low,
rather than cycling naturally, decrease food resources and foraging
opportunities for shorebirds and other waterbirds. The incremental
loss of small wetlands, swampy woodlands, and sewage ponds will
continue to erode the habitat base for migrants.
Wetland losses and degradation in northern areas have been minimal
to date due to their remote location.
Shoreline Loss
Loss of shoreline habitat is particularly severe on the Great Lakes
where encroaching development and shoreline stabilization activities
continue to degrade shorelines. Also, seaway power dams and control
structures, dampening yearly water cycles and reducing periodic
shoreline exposure in particular have stabilized water levels of
Lake Ontario. As well, there is intense recreational use of the shores
– including recreational vehicles, joggers, walkers and their
dogs, hunters, and even birders – leading to
potential disturbance to shorebirds, which can limit their access
to nesting and food resources and impact their physical condition.
Beach clearing in recreational areas removes food sources and exacerbates
the situation for both local and migrant shorebirds (Pomeroy 1999).
Recreational use of sandy beaches of the Great Lakes has disturbed
many areas formerly used by Piping Plovers, and contributed to their
elimination from those shorelines.
Inland throughout much of southern Ontario, many lakes have experienced
development pressures with the establishment of cottages and other
recreational properties. Small wetlands have been filled, and shoreline
areas have been rendered unusable for shorebirds and many other
species. Cats, dogs, and other disturbances have interfered with
birds. Dams have been built to stabilize water levels, often flooding
beaches and wetlands. Current restrictions to shoreline alteration
may be slowing these changes, but they still occur and remain a
threat. Over a wide area, recreational canoeing and camping could
interfere to some extent with species like Spotted Sandpipers.
Agricultural Practices
In general, agricultural land in southern Ontario is being used
more intensively (Riley and Mohr 1994). There has been a steep decline
in the area of pasture in southern Ontario – a 65 percent
decline from 1921 to 1986, and a further 19 percent decline from
1986 to 1996 (Statistics Canada 1987, 1997). Pastures used by Upland
Sandpiper, Killdeer, and American Woodcock are being converted to
row crops that are not used to any extent by these species; this
also reduces upland foraging opportunities for several migrant species
(plovers, Buff-breasted Sandpiper).
Many old fields are planted with trees or allowed to regenerate
to forest, or are developed as subdivisions or industrial parks,
which eliminates American Woodcock habitat. The availability of fields
to migrating shorebirds in spring has also been diminished in the
south-west through conversion of large areas to hot houses for hydroponic
production; currently, this is a local occurrence, with limited
impact to date.
Intensively farmed lands often depend heavily on chemical pesticides,
herbicides, and fertilizers (Riley and Mohr 1994). These have the
potential to contaminate shoreline areas and marshes, and the food
eaten by several species using those habitats (Noble 1991, Environment
Canada 1999).
Wet agricultural fields are favourite stopping places for migrant
species like American Golden-Plover and Black-bellied Plover. Farmers
often attempt to drain wet areas that might interfere with working
the land. Wetlands may also be degraded through excess erosion on
nearby farmlands, particularly where hillsides are worked.
Toxic Substances and Disease
Industrial effluents pollute areas such as Hamilton Harbour, and
hundreds of synthetic chemicals have been found in Great Lakes waters,
including persistent chlorine-containing organic compounds. These
have been reduced substantially in recent years, but are still present
in contaminated bottom sediments and are being added through atmospheric
deposition and undetected direct sources (Ryckman et
al. 1997). Runoff from urban areas carries a variety of chemicals
into rivers, ponds, and lakes (Environment Canada 1999). Migrant
shorebirds may be accumulating toxic loads by feeding in polluted
waters and sediments on migration (Napolitano et
al. 1992). The level of contamination or its effects on reproduction
and survival are unknown (Noble 1991).
Recently, outbreaks of Type E Botulism have caused deaths of a
variety of waterbirds along the shores of Lake Erie and southern
Lake Huron. In 2002, a die-off of shorebirds due to botulism was
reported at Long Point National Wildlife Area but the overall extent
of the kill is not known. The birds probably contracted the disease
by eating parts of infected fish or associated maggots.
Hunting
Unrestricted hunting was a serious threat to most shorebird species
prior to the passage of the Migratory Birds Convention Act in 1917.
Market hunters shot them in the millions, all but eliminating the
Eskimo Curlew (Gollop et al. 1986) and greatly
diminishing many other larger shorebird species. Today subsistence
hunting in the north involves the opportunistic taking of a few
of the larger species, the population effect of which is undetermined.
The extent and effect of hunting in wintering areas also are unknown.
In Ontario, only American Woodcock and Common Snipe have a sport
harvest. Annual Ontario harvest of American Woodcock has been declining
slowly in recent years, from about 41,000 birds (Levesque and Collins
1999) in the early 1990s to 25,000 in 1999. This level of harvest
is not known to be having any effect on the population but, given
the general population decline in this species, its impact should
be studied in concert with habitat loss studies.
The harvest of Common Snipe also has been declining slowly throughout
Canada. In Ontario, it has dropped from about 5,000 birds annually
in the early 1990s (Levesque and Collins 1999) to about 2,300 in
1999. Given that this is a generally common species, the population
is likely sustainable at recent harvest levels: the decline in harvest
is believed to be a reflection of the decreasing number of hunters.
Resource Extraction
In parts of northern Ontario, including the Hudson Bay Lowlands,
there is high potential for development of copper, zinc, gold, iron,
diamonds and uranium, and a variety of other mineral resources.
Extensive peat deposits present another prospective development
opportunity. To date, high exploration and development costs have
limited activity and may do so for some time but there is potential
for disruption, particularly to near-shore ecosystems, which could
affect breeding shorebirds. Oil and gas have been identified as
a potential resource in the north, but exploration has been limited
to some areas along the Hudson Bay coast in the 1970s. Future exploration
could affect shoreline areas of vital importance to migrants.
Timber harvesting, particularly intensive practices such as clearcut
logging, might affect boreal nesting species through habitat alteration,
either directly by forest removal or by impacts to boreal wetlands
through changes in water quantity and quality.
Hydroelectric Development
Long range hydroelectric development planning has identified several
sites on major rivers draining into Hudson Bay and James Bay for
future dams and reservoirs. These structures would flood large areas,
affecting shorebird use and influencing downstream shores, islands,
and estuaries as nesting areas. Water flow patterns would change
in the bays, altering siltation patterns and salinity of near-shore
areas, affecting invertebrate food populations. The potential negative
effects on staging shorebirds could be significant, yet remain unstudied.
There have also been proposals in the past to build a dam across
James Bay for hydroelectric generation, a project that would destroy
the shoreline area completely as breeding and staging habitat for
shorebirds. Such development would have catastrophic effects on
many species at a continental populations scale, including the isolated
eastern population of Marbled Godwit found around James Bay.
Expanding Lesser Snow Goose Numbers
Changes in agricultural practices in the southern wintering areas
have apparently contributed to an increase in mid-continent Lesser
Snow Goose populations of about 5 percent per year since 1969 to
reach numbers now totalling more than 4.5 million birds (Abraham
et al. 1998, Abraham and Jefferies 1997).
The northern coasts of Ontario are major staging areas for migrant
Snow Geese (Bellrose 1980, Thomas and Prevett 1982). Hundreds of
thousands of migrant geese use this area during both spring and
autumn (Abraham et al. 1999). Moreover, the
Cape Henrietta Maria colony holds more than 400,000 adults, increasing
to over one million adults, non-breeders, and juvenile birds in
late summer throughout Polar Bear Provincial Park. The breeding
colony covers 400 square kilometres; more than 290 kilometres of
coastal areas are used during the brood rearing stage. Cumulative
effects of severe grazing and grubbing in marsh plant communities
are evident in many places (Abraham et al.
1998). The extent that this use has affected breeding and staging
habitat for shorebirds of all species has yet to be evaluated; however,
noticeable declines in some breeding shorebird species have been
noted at the La Perousse Bay Snow Goose colony in Manitoba, where
geese have significantly altered near-shore habitats (Rockwell et
al. in prep.).
Climate Change
Over the next century, global average surface temperatures are
predicted to rise by 1.4 to 5.8°C (Dunn and Flavin 2002), a
rate of 15 to 40 times faster than at any time in the past, bringing
about major environmental changes (Smith et al.
1998). The most serious changes are likely to be felt in northern
parts of the province. Various predictions include:permafrost melt
in subarctic areas and a shift in boreal forests northward by as
much as 500 kilometres; drying out of peatlands and forests that
would then be subject to burning; a rise in ocean levels by three
to eight centimetres per decade which could flood northern coastal
marshes if isostatic rebound does not match the rise; a huge drop
in freshwater levels in the Great Lakes that could severely affect
shoreline marshes but may expose new foraging habitat; an increase
in severe weather events that could result in flooded breeding habitats
or losses of young to cold, wet weather; and an increase in diseases
that may infect migrants, such as malaria and encephalitis. Many
subarctic wetlands may shrink; shallow lakes and ponds could fill
with vegetation. Changes in water levels, soil moisture, and temperatures
will affect populations of benthic organisms, possibly changing
available food supplies. Given the potential for both positive and
negative effects, the full impact cannot be predicted at this time,
but we need to monitor changes in order to develop such predictions
and make plans for mitigation if possible.
Top
5.0 Priority Needs
for Shorebird Conservation in Ontario
5.1 Introduction
This section sets out the science needs and
management actions that are important to shorebird conservation
in Ontario. These assessments help to define the priorities for
action, thereby directing activities that will maximize coordination
and minimize duplication of effort. Conservation initiatives are
presented in three sections:
- Population and Distribution
Characteristics. This section outlines research needs to
develop an understanding of the size of populations, trends in
numbers, and the distribution of species in time and space; these
studies will contribute to the Program for Regional and International
Shorebird Monitoring (PRISM), which is the work of a Canada-United
States committee to ensure consistent and effective survey and
monitoring activities.
- Habitat Relationships.
This section sets out the requirements for defining the habitat
needs of shorebirds.
- Conservation and
Management. This section outlines actions, based on population
and habitat information, which will make meaningful contributions
to shorebird conservation in Ontario.
Within each of these three sections, information is divided between
breeding and migrant shorebirds. A general priority rating and BCR
location are assigned to each component.
5.2 Science
5.2.1 POPULATION
AND DISTRIBUTION CHARACTERISTICS
Breeding Shorebirds
Science needs with respect to numbers and distribution
of breeding shorebirds in Ontario are:
- To determine breeding distributions and develop accurate estimates
of population size and trend. Much of northern Ontario is without
road access and the number of places that fixed-wing aircraft
can land is limited, making access difficult and costly. As a result,
there has not been an accurate assessment of the population size
or the full extent of the ranges of shorebirds that breed in this
area. Such information is crucial in assessing a species’
conservation priority. Development of the methodologies to do
this forms a major component of PRISM, and will involve cooperation
among many agencies, including those outside of Ontario. (High
Priority)
- To monitor population trends of species sampled during various
spring surveys, either volunteer or agency-based. Priority should
be given to analyzing these data and improving the surveys where
possible. Surveys would include the Breeding Bird Survey, Forest
Bird Monitoring Program, Marsh Monitoring Program, Black Duck
Survey, and Spring Woodcock Survey. (High
Priority – BCR 8, 12, 13)
- To examine population dynamics in order to identify and monitor
indices of production and mortality for those species whose populations
are known to be declining significantly. There is presently little
or no information on reproductive output, fledging success, or
age-specific mortality for any populations of shorebirds breeding
in Ontario. Therefore, it is not possible to determine if breeding
factors are currently affecting those populations of concern.
This information could be very important in the development and
assessment of management programs. (High
Priority – BCR 7, 8, 12, 13)
- To undertake colour marking or telemetry studies to determine
migration routes and wintering grounds of certain northern Ontario
breeding species, such as the godwits and the yellowlegs. Migratory
pathways followed by some species of shorebirds that nest in northern
Ontario, and the areas where they stage and overwinter are largely
unknown. Thus, it is not possible to assess the potential causes
of declines that may result from factors outside the breeding
range. (Medium Priority – BCR 7)
- To document more completely the annual variation in numbers
and distribution of the endangered Piping Plover. The Piping Plover
may still breed in Ontario at least occasionally in two known
locations in Lake of the Woods. As part of the recovery plan for
this species, a search of all possible nesting areas will be conducted
and monitoring of its occurrence will continue (Goossen et
al. 2002). (High Priority – BCR
12, 13)
- To identify areas with highest breeding densities of certain
species. Priority should go to species with the largest proportion
of their ranges in southern Ontario and facing the greatest probability
of decline (Upland Sandpiper, American Woodcock) due to anthropogenic
impacts. Identifying the areas of highest breeding potential provides
crucial information on habitat relationships, and helps to identify
priority locations for conservation action. (High
Priority – BCR 13)
Migrating Shorebirds
Science needs with respect to numbers and distribution
of migrating shorebirds in Ontario are:
- To assess fully the importance of the Hudson and James Bay coasts
to migrating shorebirds in both spring and autumn.Although the
northern coasts are very important migration areas for shorebirds
transiting between the Arctic and wintering areas in Central and
South America, previous surveys have provided incomplete estimates
of their use because of difficulties in covering the full coasts
or in surveying at optimal times. There is a need for much better
information on the numbers and distributions of each of the major
migrant species using the north coasts to focus conservation action
and to contribute to assessing population sizes and trends for
these birds in a global perspective.
(High Priority)
- To assess the importance of southern Ontario to migrating shorebirds
by determining shorebird use of a statistical sample of appropriate
habitats throughout the area during peak migration, and applying
these usage levels to estimates of the total amounts of the various
habitat types. Shorebirds migrating through southern Ontario use
a wide variety of different habitats, in a multitude of different
places. The importance of the various habitat types is not understood,
nor is the aggregated impact of these as potentially useful migratory
stop-overs that may be available, even briefly or irregularly.
This information would help determine the emphasis in conservation
actions, whether broad-based or site specific. Such work might
be undertaken in cooperation with the Ontario Breeding Bird Atlas
project; some volunteers could survey shorebird use outside of
the breeding bird survey time period on their assigned plots.
(High Priority – BCR 13)
- To assess the impact of the harvest of shorebirds on population
trend. The National Harvest Survey for American Woodcock
and Common Snipe should be maintained. The influence of native
harvest on the Marbled Godwit population should also be
examined. (High Priority – BCR 12,
13)
- To improve the monitoring of shorebird migration with more frequent
and widespread assessment of numbers through expansion of the
Ontario Shorebird Survey. This and related surveys throughout North
America and the Caribbean provide the only coordinated means of
monitoring population trends of a wide range of shorebird species.
Ontario provides an important contribution as it is one of the
few inland areas monitoring shorebird migration. (High
Priority – BCR 12, 13)
- To determine the degree of repeat use by shorebirds of particular
areas in southern Ontario to establish whether they are traditional
stop-over sites used by specific individuals, or are used on a
more random and opportunistic basis by migrants. This information
would also help direct habitat management strategies.
(Medium Priority – BCR 13)
- To establish the breeding origins and wintering destinations
of staging shorebirds through a variety of marking and analysis
techniques. There is limited information on migratory pathways
followed or specific wintering areas occupied in order to evaluate
potential causes of decline operating outside the breeding range.
Such information is also useful in fostering partnerships in conservation.
(Medium Priority – BCR 7)
5.2.2
HABITAT RELATIONSHIPS
Breeding Shorebirds
Science needs with respect to habitat relationships
of shorebird
species breeding in Ontario are:
- To determine precise breeding habitat associations and identify
those features crucial to shorebird populations. For most species
of breeding shorebirds, only a general idea of the habitats chosen
by each is known. Knowledge of the specific requirements of each
species is necessary to assess the availability of such habitats,
and identify the potential impacts; this is recognized as an important
component of PRISM. This is particularly important for species
with limited distributions (tree-line and tundra areas), and those
that may be affected over large portions of their breeding range
by large-scale activities (e.g., urbanization, agricultural and
forestry harvest practices). Remote sensing with intensive ground-truthing
could play a major role (e.g., Morrison 1997, Gratto-Trevor 1996).
(High Priority – BCR 7, 13)
- To determine present and potential threats to breeding habitats
and assess the likely effects in the short and long term. Emphasis
should be placed on existing threats, such as goose overabundance,
urbanization, agricultural and forestry practices, and the presence
of toxic substances. This work will require cooperation throughout
the hemisphere to be effective. (High
Priority – BCR 7, 8, 12, 13)
- To identify all appropriate breeding habitat remaining for Piping
Plovers in Ontario. This information is necessary in case recovery
techniques such as re-introduction are to be considered. (High
Priority – BCR 12, 13)
Migrating Shorebirds
Science needs with respect to habitat relationships
of shorebird species migrating in Ontario are:
- To determine the importance of specific James and Hudson Bay
shoreline habitats through studies of temporal and spatial variation
in invertebrate resources in response to salinity and substrate.
The inflow of fresh water from the many rivers has important influences
on the salinity of waters near river mouths, and this in turn
affects invertebrate populations. Silt loads carried by major
rivers and distributed by currents along the shores of the bay
also have an impact on invertebrate populations. An understanding
of the patterns and effects of the river inflow is necessary to
evaluate the influence of potential changes in those patterns
on shorebird staging (e.g., through possible hydro-electric developments).
(High Priority – BCR 7)
- To examine the present and potential threats to the carrying
capacity of the James and Hudson Bay coastal zone caused by goose
overabundance. Very high Lesser Snow Goose numbers have caused
major disturbances in sediments and marshes along the bay shores.
How these activities might be affecting invertebrate populations
is largely unknown. The short-term and long-term consequences
of such disturbance needs to be assessed in conjunction with other
influences like isostatic uplift and climate change. (High
Priority – BCR 7)
- To determine the available food resources in various types of
habitats to assess their potential value to migrating shorebirds.
It is not known if stopover sites in southern Ontario are important
to providing fat reserves for long migratory flights, or if birds
are merely maintaining their weight prior to making short flights.
In conjunction with determining the rate of passage of shorebirds,
there is a need to estimate the food reserves present, the use
made of those reserves, and the importance of small habitat patches
to the energy needs of migrant shorebirds. The role and contribution
of sewage lagoons as habitat for migrating shorebirds should be
more thoroughly assessed. (High Priority
– BCR 13)
- To examine the possible effects of environmental toxins on
migrating shorebirds. Some of the migrating shorebirds
stopping in southern Ontario are feeding in polluted or
potentially polluted waters and sediments. The impact of
contaminants on shorebirds has never been thoroughly
investigated in Canada (Noble 1991). (High
Priority –
BCR 13)
- To examine the effects of habitat loss on migrant shorebirds
in southern Ontario, as a result of a variety of identified stressors.
It is unknown if shorebirds have suffered significant habitat
losses in southern Ontario that may be influencing population
levels, or if there is more habitat still available than required
for the numbers of migrants that use the area. Could migrant shorebird
populations be enhanced if more habitat was available in southern
Ontario? (Medium Priority – BCR 13)
- To determine the use of invertebrate resources by shorebirds
through detailed feeding studies along the James and Hudson Bay
shores. Although there have been some studies of the invertebrate
resources of northern coastal areas, more extensive work is needed
to establish more specific links to the distributions and feeding
habits of shorebirds; moreover there is the opportunity to examine
long-term temporal changes through comparisons with the earlier
work. Dynamics of shorebird distribution on the bays must be examined
in light of seasonal and annual variations in availability and
distribution of invertebrates in various habitats. (Medium
Priority – BCR 7)
- To assess the potential impact of sea level rise on habitat
availability for migrant shorebirds along the James Bay and Hudson
Bay coasts, taking into account the influence of isostatic rebound.
This would be a modeling exercise approached through the analysis
of long-term remote sensing databases. (Medium
Priority – BCR 7)
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5.3 Conservation
and Management
Given a better understanding of shorebird population numbers and
trends, their distribution, and specific habitat associations, we
can improve the quality of our recommendations for management. In
the meantime, it is still possible to make meaningful contributions
to shorebird conservation in a variety of ways, by making use of
existing knowledge.
The conservation of shorebirds in northern Ontario should focus
particularly on the coastal area of Hudson Bay and James Bay. Were
the available resources to be seriously altered it could have disastrous
results for numerous species, both local breeders and migrants.
It is essential that the Cree people who are the most closely associated
with northern coasts, and who make the most use of these areas,
be active participants in the conservation and management activities
for shorebirds there.
In southern Ontario, there is considerable anecdotal evidence that
shorebirds once occurred in far larger numbers as migrants (Quilliam
1965, Smith 1998). Given that there is increasing evidence of a
continuing gradual decline in the numbers of most shorebird species
in recent years, the general loss and degradation of habitats available
to shorebirds there may well be contributing to such declines. There
is a need not only to maintain the quantity of the remaining available
habitat, but preferably to enhance that habitat for both migrant
and breeding shorebirds in southern Ontario.
Conservation and management needs for breeding
and migrating shorebirds in Ontario are:
- To develop an inventory of sites used by migrating shorebirds
in southern Ontario. Emphasis should be placed on the most frequently
and heavily used habitats. This work should be linked to WHSRN
and the IBA program. (High Priority –
BCR 13)
-
To determine appropriate conservation actions to respond to identified
existing and potential threats to habitats. Priority should be
assigned to the most imminent and serious threats, to areas with
high diversity of shorebirds, and to areas with the highest concentrations
of species of concern. An important component of these approaches
should involve landowner participation in which stewardship agreements
are developed with landowners to protect significant shorebird
habitat, and to enhance food resources for migrating shorebirds.
This is particularly important in southern Ontario where a large
proportion of land is owned by private individuals or corporations.
The conservation of shorebirds depends to a considerable extent
on landowner cooperation. The large numbers of people there provide
both constraints and opportunities to effect management approaches
to the conservation of breeding shorebirds. (High
Priority – BCR 12, 13)
- To contribute to government land use policies, and to policy
development of all major land-user groups where possible, to encourage
shorebird conservation. Policies pertaining to wetland conservation
and restoration, water quality and quantity, and agricultural
practices should be targeted and should include conservation guidelines
for small wetlands currently not viewed as provincially significant.
(High Priority – BCR 7, 8, 12, 13)
- To contribute to government resource development policies and
regulations, especially to timber harvest management plans as
they may affect shorebirds nesting in wooded areas, particularly
boreal forest wetlands. (High Priority
– BCR 8, 12)
- To participate in the development and implementation of recovery
plans for shorebird species at risk, such as Piping Plover. (High
Priority – BCR 12, 13)
- To contribute shorebird conservation components to management
plans of provincial and national parks, national wildlife areas,
and various other wildlife reserves. Such a contribution is particularly
important to the plans for Polar Bear and Presqu’ile Provincial
Parks. Similarly, shorebird conservation should be considered
where appropriate in management plans by non-government organizations
for wetlands on private property. (High
Priority – BCR 7, 8, 12, 13)
- To formally protect important areas for both breeding and migrating
shorebirds through inclusion in reserves and parks and, where
this is not immediately possible, to encourage protection and
conservation of these areas through designation under programs
such as the WHSRN, IBAs, heritage coastlines, and other possible
allocations. Highest priority for action goes to the James and
Hudson Bay coasts where a relatively narrow strip of coast with
intertidal mudflats and marshes, and adjacent open marshes, ponds
and ridges, provide a crucial link in the annual cycle of migrant
shorebirds; providing full protection by annexing these shorelines
to Polar Bear Provincial Park should be considered. Important
sites having lower priority have been identified in southern Ontario
where other means of securement/stewardship may be more effective;
these would include private conservation acquisitions, conservation
easements, community conservation plans (e.g., IBAs), and stewardship
agreements. Present focus should be on unprotected wetlands associated
with the southern Great Lakes shoreline, and on the Point Pelee
onion fields and St. Clair Flats. (High
Priority – BCR 7, 13)
- To undertake experimental habitat management activities to find
cost-effective techniques to enhance foraging opportunities for
migrating shorebirds.As much as possible, these techniques should
be optimized with those for other species groups such as waterfowl
and marsh birds, and should follow an adaptive management approach.
Experimental management should also be conducted in an assessment
framework so that real incremental benefits can be separated from
apparent benefits (e.g., redistribution). Naturalist groups could
play a very useful role in this assessment component. (High
Priority – BCR 13)
- To monitor hunting pressure on American Woodcock and Common
Snipe, and relate harvest to abundance, population size and trend,
and habitat availability; make regulation changes if required.
(High Priority – BCR 12, 13)
- To develop educational initiatives to increase public
awareness of shorebirds and the potential influences of
human activities on shorebird numbers and habitats. A
priority would be the development of a shorebird
component to the Hudson Bay Lowlands environmental
studies curriculum developed with First Nations through
the EHJV. This could take place as part of the Shorebirds
Sister Schools program (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service).
(Medium Priority – BCR 13)
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6.0 Communication
The OSCP forms part of the continent-wide implementation goals
of the Canadian and United States Shorebird Conservation Plans.
Within this comprehensive approach, the OSCP seeks to develop communication
tools to enhance public understanding of the biology of shorebirds
throughout their annual cycle, to present an overview of what is
known and needed with respect to shorebird biology and conservation
in the province, and to indicate the importance of Ontario to international
conservation efforts for shorebirds. The formal adoption of the OSCP
should be followed by the development of a comprehensive communications
strategy aimed at specific target audiences, done in cooperation
with other shorebird initiatives, including the national plans and
WHSRN.
Target audiences for which the information presented
in the OSCP will be of particular relevance include:
- Environmental managers in provincial and
federal governments, and private organizations involved in shorebird
conservation and/or management of water resources, wetlands, and
other lands with shorebird habitat.
- Landowners and lessees of private or public
lands that provide shorebird habitat, and who manage for agricultural,
recreational, or forestry use.
- Elected representatives in local, provincial,
and federal governments responsible for decisions affecting shorebirds
and their habitat.
- Public individuals and groups with an interest
in wildlife conservation, including local communities, tourism
associations, educators, students, clubs, tourists, and birders.
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7.0 Implementation
7.1 Introduction
Implementation of the OSCP provides an opportunity
for federal and provincial governments, nongovernment organizations,
industry, and landowners to build on existing partnerships and to
foster new ones. A coordinated approach will reduce costs and deploy
a larger effort across a greater area. Partnerships will be created
by matching partners’ strengths in research, monitoring, habitat
protection, wetland and upland management, marketing, environmental
education, communication, and public policy development. The expansion
of existing partnerships will avoid the duplication of efforts and
lead to more innovative support for shorebird conservation.
7.2 Partnerships
and Linkages
Shorebirds in Ontario form only a component of hemispheric populations
and, as such, efforts must be coordinated with conservation activities
elsewhere in their breeding, migration and wintering areas. Effective
shorebird conservation requires partnerships with broader linkages
to other Canadian programs and agencies, and through initiatives
such as WHSRN, with other countries visited by these birds. Links
to shorebird conservation initiatives implementing the United States
and Mexican national plans are also essential. These links with partners
in other parts of BCRs 7, 8, 12 and 13 are essential to maximize
the effectiveness of conservation actions, and to ensure that parallel
actions are taken in neighbouring areas. These BCR
linkages must be based on firm networks of contacts with willing
partners, implemented through functional two-way exchanges.Technical
information must flow in both directions; sharing funding and human
resources among agencies is also needed to achieve the goals of
the plan. These linkages come together under the framework of NABCI,
predicated on developing partnerships for the conservation and habitat
management of all bird species using the most expeditious approaches
and combinations of partners to effect specific priority actions.
Linkages are also needed with other NABCI conservation initiatives,
such as PIF (focuses on songbirds and other landbirds) and WOW (addresses
seabirds and colonial waterbirds), because many habitats used by
shorebirds are key components of biodiversity in Canada and are
important to other bird species.
The following are examples of how partnerships
are contributing to shorebird conservation in Ontario:
Habitat Conservation
In Ontario, most wetland and upland securement, enhancement, restoration, management
and stewardship activities are undertaken by partners of the EHJV.
With the advent of the NABCI, the mandate of the EHJV has been expanded
to include all native North American birds and their habitats.
To facilitate NABCI, the natural habitats of the continent have
been mapped into 67 BCRs. Integrated planning across jurisdictions
and across borders is currently underway for many BCRs utilizing
these ecologically-based units as a common language (Figure 1).
In Ontario, integrated biological planning for waterfowl, waterbirds,
landbirds and shorebirds has begun in BCR 13 (Lower Great Lakes/St.
Lawrence Plain), which extends into Québec and four American states.
Although preliminary, the important shorebird areas for this BCR
have been mapped using known IBA and WHSRN site information and
other available expert data. These areas will be subsequently overlaid
with priority areas for other birds to illustrate, among other things,
where conservation activities could benefit the greatest number
of species.
This planning initiative is the first step in integrating the habitat
conservation needs of shorebirds with those of other bird groups
to help direct habitat conservation activities on-theground in a
coordinated fashion. The introduction of a shorebird component into
Ontario EHJV program activities should be very cost effective. Much
of the habitat conservation work for shorebirds in the east will
likely be done through the EHJV, which is taking a BCR approach
to integrated planning for all birds.
Population Monitoring
Traditionally, shorebird populations have been monitored by volunteers
who have undertaken systematic counts during the spring and autumn
migrations. These programs, which represent the most basic form of
partnership, were developed by Guy Morrison in Canada (Maritime
Shorebird Survey – MSS) and Brian Harrington in the United
States (International Shorebird Survey). The Ontario Shorebird Survey,
which is an offshoot of the MSS, has provided much useful information
on population trend and migrational phenology and will contribute
to PRISM internationally. Specifically, monitoring efforts in Ontario
will contribute information on breeding birds in arctic and boreal
regions of North America as well as temperate, non-breeding shorebirds
on migration. It is desirable to expand this program to take advantage
of both the large pool of observers in Ontario and the increasing
knowledge of habitat availability. These surveys could also be performed
on demonstration areas of managed habitat for shorebirds to provide
information for both assessment and population monitoring.
Ontario Breeding Bird Atlas
The current round of atlassing (2001-2005) for the second Ontario
Breeding Bird Atlas, which itself is a partnership of various government
and non-government bodies along with private cooperators, will provide
an updated picture of breeding shorebird distributions and population
changes. Moreover, the wide distribution of cooperators may provide
the opportunity to inventory shorebird migration habitat, particularly
in southern and central Ontario, and to assess use by migrant shorebirds
of these areas.
Species at Risk
The new legislation, Species at Risk Act, which received Royal
Assent in December 2002, contains a stewardship component for the
development of partnerships with landowners to protect species at
risk and their habitats on private property. While such actions should
benefit the target species, they may well help other species if
they share habitats, including shorebirds. As well, listed species
such as Piping Plover should benefit from increased funding of recovery
activities by various partners.
Surveys and Research
Intensive breeding and staging ground surveys, which are key components
of the OSCP, are expensive and time consuming, particularly in remote
areas. Such work is best accomplished by combining the resources,
including personnel and facilities, of federal and provincial governments,
in the manner of northern Canada Goose breeding ground surveys.
Similarly, research priorities are best met through cooperative
approaches among governments, universities, and nongovernment organizations
in the environmental field, and would be facilitated through the
international research committee associated with the national plans.
Educational Package on Shorebird Ecology
A project recently completed under the auspices of the Ontario
EHJV program has been a school curriculum on the ecology of
the Hudson Bay Lowlands, developed with the cooperation and
guidance of First Nations. Given the hemispheric importance of
the James Bay coast to shorebirds, the opportunity should be
taken to further these partnerships and to expand on the
shorebird component. Such knowledge would spur the
conservation ethic in this important area and may assist in
economic development through responsible eco-tourism.
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7.3 Formation
of Ontario Shorebird Advisory Committee
The immediate challenge facing the implementation of the OSCP will
be the formation of an Advisory Committee. The primary function of
this Committee will be to identify science issues, conservation
initiatives, and specific research and management projects that
will further the conservation of shorebird populations in Ontario. The
structure of the Committee will facilitate an integrated approach
to shorebird conservation efforts in Ontario, and will link to other
regional and/or national habitat management committees as appropriate.
The core of the Committee will consist of biologists and managers
with shorebird and habitat expertise from federal and provincial
government departments and non-government organizations. Members
from universities, other educational institutions, and aboriginal
groups will be sought on an ad hoc basis. The roles and responsibilities
of this Committee will include, but not be limited to:
- Providing technical advice and recommendations of a regional
nature to the NABCI-Canada Council and the National Working Group
of the CSCP, to achieve the goals and objectives of the national
plan;
- Providing technical advice and recommendations to regional habitat
management bodies (e.g., Ontario EHJV Steering Committee) and
to policy setting processes;
- Facilitating the implementation of projects in Ontario by:
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8.0 Acknowledgments
The Drafting Committee wishes to express appreciation to the following
individuals and organizations for their contributions to and support
for the preparation of the OSCP:
Special thanks to the following individuals for their contributions
to this report: Andrew Jano, Ontario Ministry of Natural
Resources (maps and figures); Mark Peck, Royal Ontario Museum (photographs);
Guy Morrison, Canadian Wildlife Service
(photographs); Eric Reed, Environment Canada (review of translation).Technical
and production support was provided by
Barb Campbell, Rich Russell, Julie Suzanne Pollock and Liz Sauer
of the Canadian Wildlife Service - Ontario Region.
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Literature
Cited
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