Leaving School - Results From a National Survey Comparing School Leavers and High School Graduates 18 to 20 Years of Age - January 1995

Why the Need for a Survey of High School Leavers?

In its short 125 years, Canada has become one of the most affluent countries in the world. Our level of economic prosperity as measured by GNP and GDP per capita is high (ninth and third in the world, respectively), and the growth rate in GDP over the past decade is second only to Japan ¹. Canadians also enjoy long life expectancy, low infant mortality, high education levels, and relatively open access to postsecondary education². According to international comparisons, our overall quality of life or index of human development is first or second in the world ³.

Concern is growing, however, about some general dimensions of Canadian society: high unemployment levels, the number of female lone parents and children in poverty⁴, illiteracy, the decline in after-tax family income ⁵, reduced productivity growth ⁶, increased international competition for markets, and the effectiveness of our educational institutions.

There is also growing recognition that these phenomena are closely interrelated. Success in the international marketplace is a function of economic productivity and technological innovation, which in turn, results from the knowledge, skills and determination of a well-educated and well-paid labour force engaged in challenging and satisfying work.

The application of advanced technologies and skills is expected to produce a competitive economy, enjoying international success, a high standard of living, and a good quality of life.

"We believe that a new vision for the Canadian economy is needed, one in which Canada's natural resource abundance is fully exploited, in which firms and governments focus on creating advanced skills and technology, in which sophisticated home demand drives more firms to create advanced products and processes, in which many more Canadian firms compete globally, and in which competition provides a key stimulus for continual upgrading."⁷

Concern over Canada's economic prosperity in a highly competitive global economy has led to the recognition that education is a strategic public issue⁸. In a global economy dominated by new knowledge and new technologies, which are increasingly driven by skill, creativity and flexibility, education is of paramount importance.

"An innovative and more productive economy is ultimately a function of the skills and creativity of people. Technology is developed by people, and it can be exploited fully only if used properly by skilled individuals. " ⁹

Based upon emerging changes to Canada's traditional economic structure, it is estimated that 40% of the new jobs created between 1989 and 2000 will require more than 16 years of education and training ¹⁰. Since movement toward an advanced technological and entrepreneurial economy of highly-skilled and well-paying jobs is an important objective on the public agenda, most new jobs in the future will require at least high school graduation or the equivalent, and few will require less than a high school diploma.

Compared with other countries, Canada enjoys high levels of educational attainment, few gender differences in attainment at the secondary level, and good access to postsecondary education. On the other hand, serious concern exists about the acquisition of basic literacy and numeracy skills by secondary students, the content and quality of education, student performance on standardized science and mathematics achievement tests, and the number of students who do not complete high school ¹¹.

Current estimates suggest that more than 30% of young Canadians do not finish high school. Comparable dropout rates for Japan and Germany, two of Canada's leading competitors, are substantially lower. In Japan, fewer than 2% of students do not complete high school, and in Germany, fewer than 10% do not complete their high school education.¹² Based on these estimates, the secondary school non-completion rate in Canada is three times as high as in Germany and fifteen times as high as in Japan.

If a considerable proportion of Canada's youth leave high school before completion, it may "...creat(e) a growing group that is often functionally illiterate, largely untrainable and increasingly unemployable."¹³ The economic costs of dropping out of high school are significant for Canadian society and for the students who drop out. The cost to Canada over the course of just one school year is estimated to be $4 billion.¹⁴ Compared with high school graduates, those who do not complete high school have greater chances of unemployment and reduced lifetime earnings. In addition, other negative conditions are associated with premature school departure - poor health, delinquency, crime, substance abuse, economic dependency, and a lower overall quality of life.

Reducing the dropout rate by 3% per year ¹⁵ or to 10% by the year 2000¹⁶ requires a sound understanding of the factors that influence school leaving. Is high school non-completion the result of a myriad of individual influences that are beyond policy intervention and amelioration, or is it symptomatic of deep structural problems within our school system that can be remedied?

What Does the Previous Research Literature Indicate?

A considerable body of research has been devoted to determining the causes of dropping out and to identifying the students who are most susceptible. A profile of dropouts includes socio-economic, family structure, high school stream, academic, employment, and psychological variables. Many high school non-completers come from low socio-economic backgrounds,¹⁷ from single-parent households¹⁸, from basic or general academic streams/programs,¹⁹ have failed at least one course during their high school career, work for pay more than 15 hours a week, have low selfesteem, are frustrated learners with short-range rather than long-range goals, feel alienated from teachers, peers, and curriculum, and are concrete rather than abstract thinkers.²⁰ Distinct differences between dropouts and graduates are apparent as early as Grade 3, in that dropouts exhibit academic difficulties and low achievement test scores. ²¹ By Grade 9, a pattern of failing grades and high absenteeism is evident. There is also agreement that many non-completers have low class attendance rates, exhibit forms of deviant or delinquent behaviour, and in many cases, have been suspended from school at some point.²²

In recent years, interest in educational cultures and their impacts has been growing. However, as early as 1960, researchers in the United States were investigating possible clashes between mainline academic cultures and adolescent subcultures. Some investigators thought that athletic and social subcultures detracted from academic objectives and thus hindered academic achievement.²³ Others questioned whether the school environment operated in an independent fashion, or if it operated in conjunction with the gender and socio-economic background of students, which, in turn, affect aspirations and achievement.²⁴ Similarly, in Canada, researchers questioned whether academic stratification in schools strongly determines students' plans and aspirations or whether the system of academic programs in schools is a conduit for socioeconomic and ability factors.²⁵

Another set of variables used to investigate high school dropouts involves students' attitudes toward the curriculum, peers, teachers, counsellors and rates of participation in extracurricular activities.²⁶

Two general orientations regarding the dropping out process²⁷ have been outlined. The 'frustration-self esteem' orientation suggests that schools do not provide an adequate instructional or emotional environment for students who find learning difficult. Embarrassment and frustration occur when students realize they have difficulty performing at average classroom levels. This leads to low self-esteem, further achievement difficulties, and ultimately, departure from school without a diploma. The 'participation identification' orientation suggests that students who get involved in school achieve better academic results and develop a sense of belonging and attachment to school-related goals. This identification with schooling increases participation and produces successful performance outcomes, including graduation.²⁸

Regardless of the orientation, the research highlights the importance of learning and the necessity of integrating students into a complex high school culture or system.

A Model to Guide the Analyses

Dropping out of high school is more of a process than a decision made at a particular moment in time. Chart 1-l presents a model of the influences on, and consequences of, school departure, which is used to guide the descriptive analyses in this report. First, relationships between school completion and background variables such as socio-economic status, family composition, province and gender are explored. Second, high school departure is related to intervening variables such as school experiences, academic performance, employment during school, and deviant behaviours. Third, the consequences of high school completion versus non-completion are examined in terms of labour force outcomes and broader quality of life issues like literacy and lifestyles.

Descriptive analyses which profile the graduates and the leavers according to antecedent social background or school experience variables and subsequent post-high school employment and lifestyle variables are presented. Students still in school (continuers) are excluded from the analyses. Students who left school at one time and later returned (returners) are brought into the analyses for specific purposes. The focus in the report is on comparing and contrasting the high school leavers with the graduates.

Chart 1-1
Model of the Causes and Consequences of School Departure

Chart 1-1 Model of the causes and consequences of school departure

The chapters of this publication parallel the temporal sequence of the variables in the model:

Chapter 2 examines various techniques for estimating dropout rates, including their advantages and limitations. National and provincial school leaver rates by gender are estimated using the 1991 Statistics Canada School Leavers Survey.
Chapter 3 examines differences in the demographic and background characteristics of leavers and graduates: family structure, marital status, dependents; education and occupation of parents; place of birth, disability; and linguistic or aboriginal group membership.
Chapter 4 compares the high school experiences of leavers and graduates: reasons for leaving; interest in courses; academic and social involvement; friendship patterns; reasons for returning to school after leaving; and reactions to school departure.
Chapter 5 investigates how leavers and graduates differ on academic performance, particularly in the core mathematics, science and language courses.
Chapter 6 looks at differences in the employment status of leavers and graduates during the school year, and if they did work, the number of hours worked. Their labour force involvement is related to academic performance, school experience, and the likelihood of dropping out.
Chapter 7 examines how leavers and graduates differed on deviant behaviours such as alcohol consumption, substance abuse and criminal activities.
Chapter 8 presents the employment, income and other post-high school experiences of leavers and graduates.
Finally, Chapter 9 outlines the research issues which need to be addressed in the future.

Methods: The School Leavers Survey

The School Leavers Survey was conducted by Statistics Canada from April to June 1991, under the sponsorship of Employment and Immigration Canada. Using Family Allowance files as the sampling frame, a stratified random sample of 18,000 18-20-year-olds was selected. A computer assisted telephone interview (CATI) obtained demographic background, school experience, and post-school labour market and other outcome measures, along with whether respondents were in school (continuers), had graduated (graduates) or had left before graduating (leavers). A total of 10,782 individuals were traced and contacted (60% contact rate), and of those, 9,460 were interviewed (88% response rate). The respondents represent 184,000 leavers, 241,000 continuers and 711,000 graduates. A full description of the survey methodology is presented in Appendix A.

Terminology

In this chapter, the words dropout, non-completer, and school leaver have been used interchangeably. This reflects usage in the research literature and general culture. Unfortunately, 'dropout' is one of the more misused terms today. It has been used to describe all high school non-completers regardless of the reasons, conditions or circumstances which mark their leaving. It also carries a pejorative or stigmatizing connotation associated with individual failure. Non-completers are, however, a relatively heterogeneous group. They do not fit the stereotypical picture of a dropout, particularly concerning academic achievement. Consequently, the more neutral designation 'school leaver' is used predominantly in this publication. Chapter 2 presents some definitions and distinctions which are then used throughout the remaining text.

¹ World Bank. World Development Report 1992. New York.; Oxford University Press, 1992.

² World Bank. World Development Report 1992. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992, and Economic Council of Canada.A Lot to Learn: Education and Training in Canada. Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada, 1992.

³ United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 1992. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992, p.l9 and UNDP. Human Development Report 1993.

⁴ Edward Ng. "Children and elderly people: sharing public income resources", Canadian Social Trends, Summer 1992. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Minister of Supply and Services Canada; Alain Cregheur and Mary Sue Devereaux. " Canada's Children", Canadian Social Trends, Summer 1991. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Minister of Supply and Services; Economic Council of Canada; The New Face of Poverty. Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services Canada, 1992.

⁵ Income after tax, distributions by size in Canada 1990. Statistics Canada 13-210. Ottawa: Minister of Industry, Science and Technology, 1992.

⁶ Prosperity Through Competitiveness. Government of Canada Consultation Paper. Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services Canada,1991.

⁷ Michael E. Porter. Canada at the Crossroads: Summary Report. A Report prepared for the National Council on Business Issues and the Government of Canada. Ottawa: National Council on Business Issues, October 1991. p. 72.

⁸ Dropping out: the Cost to Canada. Ottawa: The Conference Board of Canada, May 1992.

⁹ Prosperity Through Competitiveness. Government of Canada, Consultation Paper. Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services Canada, 1991. p. 8.

¹⁰ Employment and Immigration 1990. Good Jobs, Bad Jobs: Employment in the Service Economy. A Statement by the Economic Council of Canada. Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services Canada, 1990.

¹¹ A Lot to Learn: Education and Training in Canada. A Statement by the Economic Council of Canada. Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services Canada, 1992.

¹² A Lot to Learn: Education and Training in Canada A Statement by the Economic Council of Canada. Ottawa Minister of Supply and Services Canada, 1992.

¹³ Learning Well...Living Well. Government of Canada, Consultation Paper. Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services Canada, 1991.

¹⁴ Dropping Out: The Cost to Canada, The Conference Board of Canada. Ottawa: Conference Board Publications Information Centre, May 1992.

¹⁵ A Lot to Learn: Education and Training in Canada. A Statement by the Economic Council of Canada. Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services Canada, 1992.

¹⁶ Learning Well...Living Well Government of Canada, Consultation Paper. Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services Canada, 1991.

¹⁷ George Radwanski. "Ontario Study of the Relevance of Education and the Issue of Dropouts". Toronto: Ontario Ministry of Education, 1987.

¹⁸ Deborah Perlmutter Bloch. "Missing measures of the who and why of school dropouts: implications for policy and research"The Career Development Quarterly, September, Vol.40: 3747, 1991; George Radwanski. "Ontario Study of the Relevance of Education and the Issue of Dropouts". Toronto: Ontario Ministry of Education, 1987.

¹⁹ P. Quirouette, O. Sanin-Denis, N. Hout. "Dropouts in French-Language Schools: A Study of the Identification of Potential Dropouts in French-Language Schools in Ontario. " Toronto: The Ontario Ministry of Education, November, 1990; George Radwanski."Ontario Study of the Relevance of Education and the Issue of Dropouts ". Toronto: Ontario Ministry of Education, 1987.

²⁰ George Radwanski. "Ontario Study of the Relevance of Education and the Issue of Dropouts". Toronto: Ontario Ministry Of Education, 1987.

²¹ Byron L. Barrington and Bryan Hendricks. "Differentiating characteristics of high school graduates, dropouts and non-graduates".Journal of Educational Research, 1989, 82 (6), 309-319.

²² Edward M. Binkley, Richard W. Hooper. "Statistical Profile of Students Who Dropped Out of High School during the School Year 1987-1988", Nashville-Davidson County Metro. Public Schools Research 1989, Report 143, June, 7-51.

²³ J.S. Coleman."The adolescent subculture and academic achievement." The American Journal of Sociology, Vol. LXV., 1960; and The Adolescent Society: The Social Life of the Teenager and Its Impact on Education. New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1961.

²⁴ R.M. Hauser, W.H. Sewell, D.F. Alwin."High school effects on achievement " Schooling and Achievement in American Society. New York: Academic Press, 1977.

²⁵ R. Breton. "Academic stratification in secondary schools and the educational plans of students. "Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 1970, 7 (1), 17- 34; Sid Gilbert and H. McRoberts."Academic stratification and education plans: a reassessment. " Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 1977, 14 (1), 34-47; R. Breton. "Social and Academic Factors in the Career Decisions of Canadian Youth. " Ottawa: Manpower and Immigration, 1972.

²⁶ George Radwanski. "Ontario Study of the Relevance of Education and the Issue of Dropouts". Toronto: Ontario Ministry of Education, 1987.; P. Quirouette, O. Sanin-Denis, N. Hout. "Dropouts in French Language Schools: A Study of the Identification of Potential Dropouts in French Language Schools in Ontario. Toronto: The Ontario Ministry of Education, November, 1990; J. Tanner. "Reluctant rebels: a case study of Edmonton high school dropouts. " Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 1990, 27(1).

²⁷ R.W. Rumberger."High school dropouts: a review of issues and evidence." Review of Educational Research, Summer 1987, Vol. 57, No2, 101-121.

²⁸ J.D. Finn. "Withdrawing from school " Review of Educational Research, Summer 1989, Vol 59, No.2, 117-142.