School Achievement of Canadian Boys and Girls in Early Adolescence: Links with Personal Attitudes and Parental and Teacher Support for School - October 1998

The objectives of this paper are to examine the links between academic achievement, children's views of themselves, and adults' support during the transition to early adolescence. The paper focuses specifically on the children who were ten and eleven years old at the time of the Cycle 1 data collection of the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth. The central focus is on school achievement, as measured by an objective mathematics test and teacher ratings of academic skill. Its associations will be examined in relation to youth's self-perceptions and attitudes to school, parent academic hopes, expectations, and support for school, and teachers' support for school achievement. Drawing on a model of developmental contextualism (Lerner, 1991), in which it is postulated that salient developmental characteristics of early adolescence might alter the "goodness of fit" between children's needs and their school environment (Eccles & Midgely, 1990), we will examine whether children's' attitudes toward school contribute uniquely to achievement and whether this linkage is adversely affected by puberty and gender during this transitional developmental period.

1.1 Scholarly Context

Success in school is a critical component of the ability to participate fully in contemporary society. Early adolescence is critical because it initiates a developmental period when youth, particularly girls, can show marked declines in school achievement. Social scientists have devoted much attention to understanding parent, teacher and student characteristics which maximize academic achievement (Ryan et al, 1995; Stevenson et al, 1990). Typically, these diverse influences have been studied in isolation and without regard to the unique developmental demands of adolescence. The current study is grounded in a developmental-contextual model (Lerner, 1991) in order to study these influences on achievement, while also taking into account the developmental salience of gender and puberty. In the following section, research on parent, teacher and student characteristics which maximize academic achievement is first reviewed. The developmental context of adolescence is then discussed. The section concludes with a presentation of the model guiding the research.

1.1.1 Parental Expectations and Support

Research on family characteristics reveal that parents contribute to school success in a number of ways. Parents' involvement in school activities, such as sports and school conferences, are implicated in their child's success at school (Stevenson & Baker, 1987), as are high educational aspirations (DeBaryshe, Patterson, & Capaldi, 1993; Dornbusch et al, 1987; Griffith, 1996). These factors may be especially important to school achievement in the elementary grades (Singh et al, 1995). In addition to the importance of parents' behaviour and attitudes, children's perceptions of their parents' support are important. Children's perceptions that their parents are involved and interested in school, and encourage them to do well are positively related to academic achievement (Paulson, 1994; Wang & Wildman, 1995). Grolnick and Slowiaczek (1994) argue that the overall effect of parental support is an enhancement of children's achievement motivation. Via their involvement, parents convey to their children that school is important, and provide positive emotional experiences in relation to school. Children in turn, internalize their parent's positive expectations toward school in their own school attitudes.

1.1.2 Teacher Attitudes and Support

The environment provided by teachers is also important to school success (Good & Brophy, 1986). Teachers' expectations for their students' achievement influences both the quantity and quality of the support they offer to students (Graham, 1990). Elementary school children are adept at detecting the behavioural and attitudinal cues of their teacher's expectations, and at least to some measure, conform to those expectations (Babad & Taylor, 1992). Children who perceive their teachers to be fair and caring are more likely to have positive attitudes toward school and increased motivation to achieve (Babad, 1996; Wigfield et al, 1991; Wigfield & Harold, 1992). Perceptions of teacher supportiveness may be especially important to attitudes toward school and academic achievement for the lowest-achieving students (Midgley, Feldlaufer, & Eccles, 1989).

1.1.3 Self-Perceptions and Attitudes

Researchers have extensively investigated children's schemas of themselves and their relationship to academic achievement (Hinshaw, 1992; Harter, 1990). There is conflicting evidence on the relationship between self-perceptions and academic achievement in younger children. Strong relationships between self-esteem and academic achievement have been noted by some researchers (Wiggins, Schatz & West, 1994), others find that this relationship is strongest for boys (Skaalvik,1983), while others find no apparent relationship between self-esteem and overall academic achievement (Helmke & van Aken 1995; Hoge, Smit, & Crist, 1995). It may be particularly important to distinguish between general self-perceptions and perceptions which are specific to school when investigating the relationship between self-perceptions and academic achievement (Marsh, 1992). Moreover, children's attitudes to school, rather than self-esteem, may be most important during the late elementary school years, before the transition to junior high (Muijs, 1997).

1.1.4 Developmental Influences on Achievement in Early Adolescence

The years marking the transition to early adolescence are a watershed in children's development. It is during this time (grades 5 through 7) that there begins a noticeable decline in some children's academic success, a decline which is often maintained throughout the high school years (Eccles & Midgely, 1990; Wigfield & Eccles, 1994). The middle school years have been identified as a time when the psycho-educational needs of children are not always well met by the school environment. During this period, there often arises a poor fit between the psychological needs of young adolescents and the academic structures and support provided by teachers and parents. Children's perceptions of this lack of support may be expressed in less positive attitudes toward school (Eccles & Midgley, 1990; Eccles, Lord & Buchanan, 1996; Eccles et al, 1993).

1.1.5 Developmental-Contextualism as a Model

In the last several years there has developed an increasing awareness of the complexity of children's development and of the need for models which integrate several explanatory factors. Developmental-contextualism is such a model and one which is particularly suited to the early adolescent period (Ford & Lerner, 1992; Lerner, 1991). Central to this model is the view that one must take into account the specific developmental factors which are salient at each particular period, since these likely moderate the impact of general influences. Lerner and Foch (1987) argue that puberty is one of the central developmental issues in early adolescence. Since pubertal development occurs earlier and carries with it more negative social meaning for girls, gender is a second factor which must be considered in early adolescence. Drawing on this model of development, it is likely that the links between self-attitudes, perceptions of parents and teachers and achievement are altered by the advent of puberty as well as differing between boys and girls. In the following paragraphs, pubertal and gender influences on early adolescent achievement are reviewed.

1.1.6 Puberty, Gender, and School Achievement

The changes associated with puberty are stressful for most young adolescents. Pubertal development is associated with changing expectations of parents who demand more maturity of their children (Hill & Holmbeck, 1987; Hill & Lynch, 1983; Windle et al, 1986), peers who press for conformity to group norms (Tobin-Richards, Boxer, & Peterson, 1983), and teachers who are less enthusiastic teaching them (Dornbusch, Gross, Duncan, & Ritter, 1987).

It has been suggested that pubertal development, when accompanied by school environments which do not meet the psycho-educational needs of young adolescents, contributes to a decline in school achievement (Peterson, 1987). The importance of school attitudes may account for the inconsistent research findings regarding the importance of pubertal development in late elementary school children. For example, Lernerz, Kucher, East, Lerner and Lerner (1987) found no effect of pubertal development on either teacher ratings of academic competence, or children's ratings of their own competence. Likewise, Peterson and Crockett (1985) found no effect of pubertal timing for either boys or girls. Conversely, Dubas, Graber and Peterson (1991) found a slight advantage for later-maturing girls and early-maturing boys regarding their grades in language arts. Simmons and Blyth (1987) found a similar advantage for late maturing girls, and the advantage also extended to mathematics achievement. Thus it is important to consider children's school attitudes, as well as teacher and parent support, when evaluating the effects of puberty.

Pubertal changes are differentially stressful for girls (Connolly, Paikoff & Buchanan, 1996). Whereas boys typically welcome the physical changes associated with puberty, girls do not. For girls, many of the physical changes particularly body fat and distribution, are unwelcome. Physical appearance is highly correlated with self-esteem among adolescent girls (Harter, 1990) and the changes of puberty are often associated with declines in girls' self-esteem and attitudes about themselves. Personal attitudes then, may be particularly important for the school achievement of girls.

1.1.7 Developmental-Contextual Model for the Current Analyses

Drawing on the literature summarized in the preceding sections, it is apparent that parents' and teachers' support, as well as self -perceptions, are linked to school achievement. To date, researchers have focused on one or other of these factors, isolated from the others. In this paper the three factors are integrated into a single model that also takes into account the developmental context of early adolescence. Specifically, it is proposed that personal attitudes, as well as adult support, are critical factors in children's academic achievement, with each set of factors contributing independently. Within the context of early adolescence, both puberty and gender moderate the influence of these factors. Because adults are less supportive of adolescents during puberty, it is hypothesized that their influence on school achievement declines at this time and the relative influence of personal attitudes is increased. Likewise, because girls experience greater threats to their self-attitudes than do boys in early adolescence, it is hypothesized that variability is this factor will be more influential on girls' school achievement than boys' and that the supportive role of parents and teachers will be particularly critical for girls at this time. These influences are shown graphically in the following diagram.

Figure 1 Model of Self, Parent, and Teacher Influences on School Achievement in Early Adolescence

Based on this model, the specific objectives of this paper are to:

1) Examine national trends in the key constructs of the paper, namely, school achievement, self-attitudes, parent support, teacher support.

2) Examine gender differences and pubertal influences on these key constructs.

3) Examine the associations of school achievement to: a) youths' self-esteem and school attitudes; b) parental expectations, hopes, and support for school; and c) teacher support for schoolwork.

4) Examine the independent contributions of self-attitudes and adult's support to school achievement.

5) Examine whether pubertal status moderates the relationships between self-attitudes and achievement, such that personal attitudes are more significant for those adolescents who have entered have entered puberty than those who have not.

6) Examine whether gender moderates the linkages between self-perceptions and achievement, such that personal attitudes are more important predictors for girls than for boys.