Changes in Poverty Status and Developmental Behaviours: A Comparison of Immigrant and Non-Immigrant Children in Canada - August 2000

4.1 Younger children — 4- to 9-year-olds

4.1.1 Economic changes in the family

During the period from 1994/95 to 1996/97, both non-immigrant and immigrant families with children 4- to 9-years-old improved, on average, their economic status, a trend consistent with the expanding national economy (Table 1). However, immigrant families still made up more of the proportion of families in poverty. The proportion of immigrant families that moved out of poverty was relatively smaller than that of non-immigrant families. About 14.5% of immigrant families were poor at the time of both cycles of the survey, compared with 10.1% of non-immigrant families. About 72.0% of immigrant families were not poor at both cycles, compared with 77.5% of non-immigrant families. The differences between immigrant and non-immigrant families were statistically significant (p<.000).

Table 1
Economic Changes in the Family, 4-9 Years Old

Variables	Categories	Non-immigrant Children		Immigrant Children
		Frequency	Percent	Frequency	Percent
Poverty	Non-poor	3784	77.5	962	72.0
	Newly Poor	257	5.3	77	5.7
	Newly Non-poor	349	7.2	103	7.7
	Persistently Poor	492	10.1	194	14.5
Welfare Dependence	Persistent Dependence	139	2.9	53	4.0
	Decreased Dependence	287	5.9	51	3.8
	Increased Dependence	200	4.1	73	5.5
	No Dependence	4256	87.2	1159	86.7
Employment	No Parents Working	328	6.7	83	6.2
	Stable Employment	2920	59.8	792	59.3
	New Unemployment	547	11.2	186	13.9
	New Employment	1088	22.3	275	20.6

While the proportion of non-immigrant families depending on social welfare as the major source of family income decreased during this period, more immigrant families became dependent on social welfare. For about 7.8% of immigrant families, social welfare was the major income source in 1994/95, compared with 9.5% two years later. The corresponding percentage decreased from 8.8% to 7.0% for non-immigrant families. About 4.0% of immigrant families persistently depended on social welfare, compared with 2.9% of non-immigrant families. Again, these differences were statistically significant (p<.000).

More families, regardless of immigrant status, entered into the labour market in a growing economy. However, the improvement in employment rate was stronger among non-immigrant families. Furthermore, the labour market was more volatile for immigrants than for non-immigrants. Although adults in immigrant families were less likely to have no jobs at both cycles, they also had a smaller proportion of stable employment, and a higher proportion of new unemployment than non-immigrant adults.

Changes in family poverty status were closely related to changes in welfare dependence, although the relation was stronger among non-immigrant families (Cramer's V (CV)= .44, contingency coefficient (C)=.60, p<.000)⁴ than among immigrant families (CV= .34; C=.51; p<.000). Among the persistently poor, non-immigrant families were far more likely to depend on welfare than immigrant families. Among persistently poor immigrant families, 20.6%(u)⁵ persistently depended on social welfare, 11.3%(u) decreased their welfare dependence, 21.1%(u) increased their welfare, and 46.9% never depended on welfare in the two-year period. The corresponding percentages were 47.3%, 13.0%, 10.2%, 29.5%, respectively for persistently poor non-immigrant families.

Among those who recently became poor, non-immigrant families were again more likely to persistently depend on welfare or become dependent on welfare than immigrant families. Among newly poor immigrant families, 1.3%(u) persistently depended on social welfare, 11.7%(u) decreased their welfare dependence, 16.9%(u) increased their welfare, and 70.1% never depended on welfare. The corresponding percentages for newly poor non-immigrant families were 11.7%, 6.6%, 18.7%, and 63.0%, respectively. Among the newly non-poor, 73.1% of immigrant families never depended on welfare, compared with 69.9% in non-immigrant families.

The above comparisons suggested that the larger proportion of low-income among immigrant families was the primary reason contributing to their slightly higher overall dependence on social welfare than non-immigrant families. Within each income level, immigrant families are less likely to depend on welfare than non-immigrant families.

Changes in poverty status were also related to changes in employment status of parents. Again, this association was stronger among non-immigrant families (CV = .38, C= .55, p<.000) than immigrant families (CV=.30, C=.46, p<.000). Their major difference was that persistent poverty was more strongly associated with persistent unemployment among non-immigrant families than among immigrant families. Among the persistently poor, 49.1% of non-immigrant families had no parent working in the two-year period, compared with 25.7%(u) of immigrant families. Furthermore, moving out of poverty was more strongly associated with new employment of parents among non-immigrant families than among immigrant families.

4.1.2 Changes in poverty status and changes in family environment

Immigrant children experienced more negative changes in family environment than non-immigrant children. The results in Table 2 revealed that, although immigrant children were less likely to live in single-parent families at both cycles than were non-immigrant children, the differences decreased from 10.8% vs 17.1% at the first cycle to 15.1% vs 17.1% at the second cycle. The rate of increase in the proportion of single-parent families was much higher among immigrants. Furthermore, parental depression and family dysfunction intensified among immigrant families, but diminished among non-immigrant families. Meanwhile, among both immigrant and non-immigrant families, positive and ineffective parenting decreased, while consistent parenting increased.

Table 2
Changes in the Family Environment, 4-9 Years Old

Categories	Non-immigrant Children		Immigrant Children
	1994/95	1996/97	1994/95	1996/97
% of Single Parent	17.1%	17.6%*	10.8%	15.1%*
Positive Parenting	13.135	12.496*	12.772	12.252*
Ineffective Parenting	9.180	8.971*	8.830	8.456*
Consistent Parenting	15.025	15.218*	14.529	14.887*
Parental Depression	4.866	4.270*	4.970	5.039*
Family Dysfunction	7.886	7.812*	8.873	9.153*
* Significantly different between cycle one and cycle two at p<.001.

Changes in family structure were moderately related to changes in poverty status among immigrant families (CV=.31; C=.40, p<.000) and among non-immigrant families (CV = .35, C= .45, p<.000). Among persistently poor families, about 34.5%(u) were headed by a single parent at both cycles of the survey among immigrants, compared with 54.2% among non-immigrants. Among persistently non-poor families, only 2.8%(u) were headed by a single parent at both cycles among immigrants, compared with 6.5% among non-immigrants.

Changes in positive parenting, ineffective parenting, parental depression, and family dysfunction were also associated with changes in poverty status among immigrant families (Table 3). However, the directions of the associations were different from what we would expect. Newly non-poor families had the largest decrease in positive parenting, and largest increases in ineffective parenting, parental depression, and family dysfunction. Persistently poor families had the largest decreases in ineffective parenting and family dysfunction. Newly poor immigrant families had the largest decrease in parental depression.

Table 3
Changes in Poverty Status and Changes in Parental Characteristics, 4-9 Years Old

	Positive Parenting (T2-T1)	Ineffective Parenting (T2-T1)	Consistent Parenting (T2-T1)	Parental Parenting (T2-T1)	Family Parenting (T2-T1)
Non-Immigrant Families
1. Non-poor	-.673	-.177	.158	-.607	.020
2. Newly Poor	-.829	-.338	-.192	.040	-.547
3. Newly Non-poor	-.610	-.068	.421	-1.385	-.713
4. Persistently Poor	-.295	-.489	.519	-.278	-.118
ANOVA, P-Value	.038	.174	.018	.017	.059
Significant Contrasts*	1-4		2-4	2-3
Immigrant Families
1. Non-poor	-.362	-.451	.454	-.054	.545
2. Newly Poor	-.967	.528	.255	-1.093	.610
3. Newly Non-poor	-1.382	.708	-.048	1.851	.939
4. Persistently Poor	-.719	-1.005	.079	.144	-1.503
ANOVA, P-Value	.000	.001	.421	.036	.000
Significant Contrasts*	1-3	1-2		2-3	1-4
		1-3		3-4
		2-4
		3-4
Bonferroni post-hoc test

The associations between parental characteristics and changes in poverty status were rather weak among non-immigrant families. As Table 3 shows, only positive parenting, consistent parenting, and parental depression were significantly associated with changes in poverty status, but the directions were not consistent. Persistently poor families were less likely to show decreases in positive parenting than persistently non-poor families, and more likely to show increases in consistent parenting than newly poor families. Newly non-poor families experienced a significantly larger decrease in parental depression than newly poor families.

4.1.3 Changes in poverty status and developmental outcomes

Table 4 provides information about differences in developmental outcomes between immigrant and non-immigrant children in the 4- to 9-year-old age group. At cycle 1, immigrant children had significantly lower levels of hyperactivity and conduct disorder. At cycle 2, the advantages of immigrant children over non-immigrant children extended to all five outcomes, although the differences in hyperactivity and conduct disorder became smaller. During the two-year period, immigrant children had slightly larger increases in prosocial behaviours, but smaller decreases in hyperactivity and conduct disorder than non-immigrant children. While immigrant children remained virtually unchanged in emotional disorder and showed decreases in indirect aggression, non-immigrant children showed increases in both outcomes.

Table 4:
Differences in Developmental Behaviours Between Immigrant and Non-immigrant Children, 4-9 Years Old

		Hyperactivity -Inattention	Prosocial Behaviour	Emotional Disorder	Conduct Disorder	Indirect Aggression
Cycle 1	Immigrant	4.21	12.18	2.53	1.16	1.10
	Non-immigrant	4.92	11.95	2.54	1.55	1.18
	T-test, p	.000	.075	.931	.000	.158
Cycle 2	Immigrant	4.21	13.18	2.49	1.02	.99
	Non-immigrant	4.51	12.94	2.70	1.31	1.29
	T-test, p	.010	.037	.008	.000	.000
Change	Immigrant	-.01	1.06	-.04	-.16	-.11
Cycle 2-	Non-immigrant	-.42	.94	.16	-.24	.15
Cycle 1	T-test, p	.000	.379	.027	.116	.000

At the bivariate level, changes in poverty status were more strongly correlated with changes in children's developmental outcomes among immigrant families than among non-immigrants families (Table 5). Among immigrant families, children in newly poor families had the largest decreases in prosocial behaviours and the largest increases in emotional disorder; however, they also had the largest decreases in conduct disorder. Immigrant children living in persistently poor families tended to improve their developmental outcomes. They showed the largest increases in prosocial behaviours and largest decreases in emotional disorder, and remained virtually unchanged in conduct disorder. By comparison, among non-immigrant families, changes in poverty status had no significant associations with changes in hyperactivity, emotional disorder, conduct disorder, and indirect aggression.

Table 5:
Changes in Poverty Status and Changes in Developmental Behaviours, 4-9 Years Old

	Hyperactivity- Inattention (T2-T1)	Prosocial Behaviour (T2-T1)	Emotional Disorder (T2-T1)	Conduct Disorder (T2-T1)	Indirect Aggression (T2-T1)
Non-Immigrant Families
1. Non-poor	-.43	.95	.18	-.25	.13
2. Newly Poor	-.24	.21	.09	-.04	.35
3. Newly Non-poor	-.29	1.17	.30	-.41	.20
4. Persistently Poor	-.49	1.07	-.06	-.20	.13
ANOVA, P-Value	.657	.011	.185	.110	.310
Significant Contrasts*		1-2
		2-3
		2-4
Immigrant Families
1. Non-poor	.02	1.11	-.001	-.17	-.15
2. Newly Poor	.60	-.30	.60	-.68	-.41
3. Newly Non-poor	-.36	-.16	.25	.04	.20
4. Persistently Poor	-.26	1.91	-.66	-.005	.09
ANOVA, P-Value	.219	.000	.007	.032	.103
Significant Contrast *		2-4	1-4	2-3
		3-4	2-4	2-4
* Bonferroni post-hoc test

Measured by developmental outcomes at cycle two of the survey, immigrant children in persistently poor families did not face the disadvantages of non-immigrant children (Table 6). Among immigrant families, children living in persistently poor families did not rank the lowest in any of the five developmental outcomes at cycle 2 of the survey. In sharp contrast, non-immigrant children in persistently poor families clearly had disadvantages in hyperactivity, emotional disorder, conduct disorder, and indirect aggression. They had the highest levels in three of the four outcomes, and their differences with children in persistently non-poor families were significant in all four outcomes. These results suggest that, although prolonged exposure to poverty may not further escalate children's developmental problems, children living in persistent poverty experienced disadvantages in developmental outcomes that sustained over time.

Table 6:
Changes in Poverty Status and Developmental Behaviours at Cycle 2, 4-9 Years Old

	Hyperactivity- Inattention	Prosocial Behaviour	Emotional Disorder	Conduct Disorder	Indirect Aggression
Non-Immigrant Families
1. Non-Poor	4.29	12.95	2.58	1.20	1.23
2. Newly Poor	5.58	12.52	2.95	1.74	1.39
3. Newly Non-poor	4.90	12.24	2.95	1.46	1.45
4. Persistently Poor	5.42	12.86	3.24	1.80	1.59
ANOVA, P-Value	.000	.144	.000	.000	.000
Significant Contrasts *	1-2		1-4	1-2	1-4
	1-3			1-4
	1-4			3-4
Immigrant families
1. Non-Poor	4.18	13.30	2.53	.99	.91
2. Newly Poor	4.98	10.96	2.59	.70	1.10
3. Newly Non-poor	3.98	11.93	2.82	1.53	1.37
4. Persistently Poor	4.26	14.02	2.05	1.00	1.12
ANOVA, P-Value	.301	.000	.044	.001	.018
Significant Contrast *		1-2		1-3	1-3
		1-3		2-3
		2-4		3-4
		3-4
* Bonferroni post-hoc test

The above bivariate analyses could not indicate whether the effects of changes in poverty status are conditioned by absolute income changes or influenced by changes in income sources, family structure, and parental characteristics. Tables 7 to 16 present results of multivariate analyses for each of the five selected developmental outcomes for immigrant and non-immigrant families. As explained before, changes in family structure contained four categories in non-immigrant families, but only three categories among immigrant families.

A. Hyperactivity

As shown in Table 7, variables representing economic changes were more likely to be significant, and added more explanatory power to the models for immigrant children than for non-immigrant children (as in Table 8). Changes in family structure explained little additional variance in the outcomes (Model 3). Changes in parental characteristics tended to explain more variance in the outcome than did economic situation and family structure. The results presented in the final model suggested that children living in persistently non-poor families did not have advantages in hyperactivity over children in families which experienced poverty currently or in the past. Furthermore, absolute income changes moderated the effects of changes in poverty status.

Figure 1a suggests that absolute income increases reduced immigrant children's hyperactivity among persistently poor families, although these families on average had little absolute income changes. Overall, immigrant children in persistently poor families had lower levels of hyperactivity than children in persistently non-poor families.

For newly non-poor families, Figure 1b included only four points on the X-axis: mean absolute income increases (104%), one standard deviation below the mean (left), one and two standard deviations above the mean (right). The outcome value for two standard deviations below the mean was out of the reasonable range. This figure shows that in newly non-poor families, children's hyperactivity tended to elevate with increases in absolute income, although children in these families had overall lower levels of hyperactivity than children in persistently non-poor families.

For newly poor immigrant families, Figure 1c also included only four points on the X-axis: mean absolute income decreases (-48%), one and two standard deviations below the mean (left), one standard deviation above the mean (right). In this group, children's hyperactivity increased with decreases in absolute income.

Model 4 in Table 7 also revealed that the only other significant economic variable was new employment: children whose parents became newly employed tended to have higher levels of hyperactivity than those whose parents maintained stable employment. Single-parent status, regardless of whether it was persistent or recent, was associated with higher levels of children's hyperactivity. Increases in ineffective parenting and consistent parenting both escalated children's hyperactivity. Although country of birth made no difference, children's hyperactivity increased with parent's length of residence; also, non-white children tended to have higher levels of hyperactivity.

Among non-immigrant families (Table 8), changes in poverty status and other related economic situations had little effects on the changes in children's hyperactivity. The addition of variables representing changes in economic situations resulted in less than a 1% increase in explained variance from Model 1 to Model 2. As observed in Model 2, absolute income increases among persistently poor families tended to intensify children's hyperactivity. Decreased welfare dependence and persistent unemployment of parents were associated with elevated levels of children's hyperactivity. The addition of family structure variables in Model 3 substantially reduced the coefficient of decreased welfare dependence, a finding suggesting that the effect of decreased welfare dependence may be partially mediated by changes in family structure. The larger increment in R-square from Model 3 to Model 4 suggested that changes in ineffective parenting and parental depression had stronger effects on the changes in children's hyperactivity than did changes in economic situation and family structure. Among all variables representing changes in economic situation, only decreased welfare dependence was significant in Model 4.

The results in Model 4 also suggested that children's hyperactivity was rather stable over the two-year study period. Decreases in the level of hyperactivity were more likely to be observed among older than younger children. Girls had larger decreases than boys. Children living in single-parent families at both cycles, or whose single parent later found a partner tended to increase their level of hyperactivity. Increases in the levels of ineffective parenting and parental depression intensified children's hyperactivity.

B. Prosocial behaviour

Economic variables tended to be more strongly correlated with changes in prosocial behaviors among immigrant families than non-immigrant families. Among immigrant families (Table 9), variables representing economic changes added, to Model 1, about 5% explained variance in prosocial behaviours at cycle 2. Of the significant economic variables in Model 2, however, only the positive effect of increased welfare dependence remained significant in Model 4. Parents' education increased immigrant children's prosocial behaviors. Increases in ineffective parenting reduced children prosocial behaviours. Non-white children had higher levels of prosocial behaviours than white children. Meanwhile, country of birth and parent's length of residence was immaterial.

Among non-immigrant families (Table 10), changes in economic situation and family structure explained little of the variance in the changes in children's prosocial behaviours, as R-square only slightly increased from Model 1 to Model 3. Results of Model 4 suggested that children in newly poor families were more likely to decrease their prosocial behaviours, compared with those in persistently non-poor families. No other economic variables had significant effects. Transitions from single-parent families to two-parent families tended to increase children's prosocial behaviours. Increases in positive parenting and decreases in ineffective parenting were associated with increased prosocial behaviours. The effect of increase in parental depression was also marginally significant.

C. Emotional Problems

Among immigrant families (Table 11), variables representing economic changes resulted in a 2.4% increase from Model 1 to Model 2 in explained variance in emotional problems. After controlling for changes in family structure and parental characteristics, children living in persistently poor families had lower levels of emotional disorder than those living in persistently non-poor families. On the other hand, increases in welfare dependence elevated immigrant children's emotional disorder. Unemployment of parents, whether it was persistent or recent, was associated with lower levels of children's emotional disorder. Changes from living with two parents to living with a single parent tended to escalate immigrant children's emotional disorder. Increases in positive parenting and decreases in ineffective parenting and parental depression tended to ameliorate immigrant children's emotional disorder. Although country of birth and race made no difference, immigrant children's emotional disorder increased as parents stayed longer in Canada after immigration.

Among non-immigrant families (Table 12), changes in parental characteristics tended to explain more of the variance in emotional disorder than did changes in economic situation and family structure. Results in Model 4 indicated that single-parent status, regardless of the recency or duration of this status, was associated with elevated levels of children's emotional disorder. Increases in positive parenting and consistent parenting, as well as decreases in ineffective parenting and parental depression, attenuated children's emotional disorder. Children living in families that became recently dependent on social welfare as the major income source tended to have escalated emotional disorder.

The positive and significant interaction between persistent poverty and absolute increases in income is counterintuitive. Figure 2 illustrates that, overall, absolute income for persistently poor families remained virtually unchanged, showing only a 1% decrease. However, among persistently poor families children's emotional disorder increased with increases in absolute income.

Further analyses suggest that the above result may entail some important underlying dynamics. Results of bivariate correlations indicated that, among families in persistent poverty, absolute income increases were significantly associated with new employment of parents and reduced dependence on social welfare. It is possible that the new employment of parents did not bring enough income into the household to pull the family out of poverty. At the same time low-pay jobs were a new source of stress for parents. Furthermore, working parents were no longer able to spend as much time with the child relative to when they were not employed. Thus, small economic gains resulting from new employment may not compensate for the contemporaneous psychological stress.

D. Conduct problems

Among immigrant families (Table 13), variables representing economic changes resulted in an increase of about 3.6% explained variance from Model 1 to Model 2. The significant economic variables in Model 2 remained significant in Model 4. Results in Model 4 showed that children in newly poor families tended to have lower conduct disorder than those in persistently non-poor families. Furthermore, among persistently poor and newly poor families, immigrant children's conduct disorder increased with decreases in absolute income. As Figure 3a illustrates, children living in persistently poor families experiencing some increases in absolute income tended to be similar to, or perform better than children in persistently non-poor families. Figure 3b illustrates how only when absolute income decreased by more than 60% did children living in newly poor families have higher levels of conduct disorder than children in persistently non-poor families. Similar to the results for emotional disorder, immigrant children with newly unemployed parents had lower levels of conduct disorder than children with persistently employed parents. Decreased welfare dependence also increased children's conduct disorder.

The results in Model 4 of Table 13 also revealed that changes in family structure had no significant effects on immigrant children's conduct disorder. Increases in ineffective parenting and consistent parenting were both associated with elevated levels of children's conduct disorder. Foreign-born children tended to have higher levels of conduct disorder than children born to immigrant parents, while parents' length of residence and race made no significant difference.

Among non-immigrant families, the models for conduct disorder in Table 14 yielded many similar results to those for emotional disorder (Table 12). First, changes in parental characteristics tended to explain more variance in conduct disorder than changes in economic situation and family structure. Second, increases in positive parenting and decreases in ineffective parenting and parental depression tended to ameliorate children's conduct problems. Third, children living in families which became increasingly dependent on social welfare had higher levels of conduct disorder. Fourth, among persistently poor families, absolute income increases heightened children's conduct disorders, as shown in Figure 4a.

The models for conduct disorder also revealed some patterns that were not significant in the models for emotional disorder. First, breakdowns of two-parent families were associated with reduced levels of children's conduct disorder. Second, children with parents who were unemployed at both cycles had higher levels of conduct disorder. Third, among families recently moved out of poverty, absolute income increases helped to ameliorate children's conduct problems. As Figure 4b illustrated, newly non-poor families on average showed about 91% increases in absolute income. Only among those families whose absolute income almost doubled in the two-year period, did children have lower levels of conduct disorder than those in persistently non-poor families. This result suggests that transitions out of poverty without substantial increases in average income would not be enough to improve children's conduct problems. Third, the conditional effect of absolute income changes also held among families that fell into poverty. As illustrated in Figure 4c, newly poor families on average experienced about 47% of a decrease in absolute income. Only among those families whose absolute income decreased by 20% in the two-year period, did children have higher levels of conduct disorder than those in persistently non-poor families. Furthermore, the larger the decrease in absolute income, the larger the difference in children's conduct disorder between newly poor and persistently non-poor families.

E. Indirect aggression

Among immigrant families (Table 15), variables representing economic changes added 8.9% explained variance from Model 1 to Model 2. All the significant economic variables in Model 2 remained significant in Model 4 which controlled for changes in family structure and parental characteristics. The results in Model 4 suggested that children living in persistently poor families had higher levels of indirect aggression than those living in persistently non-poor families. In contrast, children in newly poor families had lower levels of indirect aggression than children in persistently non-poor families. However, children's indirect aggression increased with decreases in absolute income among newly poor families.

Children in newly non-poor families had on average higher levels of indirect aggression than those in persistently non-poor families. However, when absolute income increases were substantial (more than doubling the previous income), children in newly non-poor families tended to have lower levels of indirect aggression than children in persistently non-poor families. Similar to the results for conduct disorder, decreased welfare dependence in the family was associated with higher levels of children's indirect aggression. While persistent unemployment of parents was associated with lower levels of children's indirect aggression, new employment increased children's indirect aggression.

Similar to the results for emotional disorder, changes from living with two parents to staying with a single parent increased immigrant children's indirect aggression. Increases in positive parenting and decreases in ineffective parenting ameliorated children's indirect aggression, while increases in consistent parenting elevated children's indirect aggression. The effect of country of birth became insignificant once economic variables were controlled. However, non-white children had lower levels of indirect aggression. Immigrant children's indirect aggression tended to increase as their parents stayed more years in Canada.

Among non-immigrant families (Table 16), changes in economic situation, family structure, and parental characteristics added little power to explain changes in outcome. Among persistently poor families, absolute income increases were associated with elevated levels of children's indirect aggression. In contrast, among newly non-poor families, absolute income increases ameliorated children's indirect aggression. Similar to the effects on conduct disorder, absolute income increases among newly non-poor families had to be substantial (in this case, about 80%) before their children's indirect aggression could approach or fall below the levels of those living in persistently non-poor families.

Living in single-parent families at both cycles, or changing from single-parent to two-parent families were associated with elevated levels of indirect aggression. Increases in ineffective parenting also intensified non-immigrant children's indirect aggression. Girls were more likely to increase indirect aggression than boys. Unlike the results of models for other developmental outcomes, older age and higher education of the parents tended to reduce children's indirect aggression.

Table 7:
Regression of Hyperactivity on Changes in Economic Situations, Family Structure and Parental Characteristics for Children of Immigrants, 4-9 Years Old

	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3		Model 4
	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E
Constant	3.269***	0.654	2.712***	0.674	2.718***	0.670	1.897**	0.661
Child's Age	-0.014	0.052	-0.025	0.051	-0.025	0.051	-0.009	0.051
Girl	-0.341	0.179	-0.347	0.178	-0.429*	0.179	-0.380*	0.175
PMK's Age	-0.073***	0.016	-0.059***	0.016	-0.053**	0.016	-0.043**	0.016
PMK's Education	0.581**	0.202	0.514*	0.204	0.426*	0.204	0.522**	0.198
Foreign-born	-0.004	0.281	-0.111	0.286	-0.193	0.285	0.028	0.279
Length of Immigration	0.024*	0.010	0.024*	0.010	0.021*	0.010	0.025*	0.010
Non-white	1.054***	0.184	1.071***	0.195	1.007***	0.195	1.140***	0.190
Initial Hyperactivity	0.614***	0.025	0.633***	0.025	0.624***	0.025	0.650***	0.025
Economic Situation
New Poor			-1.074	0.749	-1.404	0.748	-1.542*	0.733
New Non-poor			-1.768**	0.579	-1.966***	0.581	-1.857***	0.570
Persistent Poor			-1.819***	0.341	-2.001***	0.346	-1.753***	0.336
New Poor* Income Increase			-1.306	0.944	-1.484	0.939	-1.487	0.919
New Non-poor* Income Increase			2.001**	0.740	1.860*	0.743	1.596*	0.728
Persistent Poor* Income Increase			-1.451	0.939	-1.941*	0.957	-2.507**	0.933
Persistent Welfare Dependence			1.293*	0.542	0.008	0.627	-0.078	0.611
Decreased Welfare Dependence			0.839	0.542	0.227	0.573	0.442	0.557
Increased Welfare Dependence			0.342	0.460	-0.479	0.536	-0.390	0.523
Unemployed, Both Cycles			0.744	0.491	1.133*	0.518	0.792	0.505
Newly Unemployed			0.502	0.282	0.217	0.300	0.367	0.296
Newly Employed			0.963***	0.250	0.987***	0.249	0.936***	0.242
Family Structure
Single Parent, Both Cycles					1.461***	0.424	1.214**	0.415
Family Breakdown					1.493**	0.506	1.189*	0.508
Parental Characteristics
Increase in Positive Parenting							-0.017	0.028
Increase in Ineffective Parenting							0.191***	0.023
Increase in Consistent Parenting							0.098***	0.025
Increase in Parental Depression							0.013	0.014
Increase in Family Dysfunction							-0.022	0.016
R-Square	0.380***		0.409***		0.418***		0.458***
* p<0.05 ** p<0.01 *** p<0.001

Table 8:
Regression of Hyperactivity on Changes in Economic Situations, Family Structure and Parental Characteristics for Non-immigrant Children, 4-9 Years Old

	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3		Model 4
	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E
Constant	2.955***	0.324	2.558***	0.338	2.448***	0.338	2.319**	0.330
Child's Age	-0.095***	0.026	-0.093***	0.026	-0.091***	0.026	-0.088***	0.026
Girl	-0.537***	0.087	-0.542***	0.087	-0.552***	0.087	-0.506***	0.084
PMK's Age	-0.013	0.009	-0.005	0.009	-0.002	0.009	-0.001	0.009
PMK's Education	0.18	0.093	-0.152	0.093	-0.157	0.093	-0.174	0.09
Initial Hyperactivity	0.608***	0.012	0.600***	0.012	0.593***	0.012	0.623***	0.012
Economic Situation
New Poor			0.526	0.359	0.448	0.358	0.479	0.348
New Non-poor			-0.079	0.297	-0.184	0.297	-0.343	0.289
Persistent Poor			-0.056	0.204	-0.161	0.205	-0.083	0.199
New Poor* Income Increase			0.264	0.438	0.228	0.437	0.214	0.425
New Non-poor* Income Increase			0.221	0.408	0.050	0.407	0.408	0.397
Persistent Poor* Income Increase			0.996*	0.432	1.029*	0.430	0.711	0.418
Persistent Welfare Dependence			0.013	0.273	-0.322	0.282	-0.259	0.274
Decreased Welfare Dependence			1.034***	0.243	0.633*	0.249	0.527*	0.242
Increased Welfare Dependence			0.480	0.283	0.287	0.290	0.245	0.281
Unemployed, Both Cycles			0.585*	0.251	0.496*	0.252	0.334	0.245
Newly Unemployed			0.055	0.150	0.064	0.158	-0.141	0.112
Newly Employed			0.044	0.113	-0.074	0.115	-0.141	0.112
Family Structure
Single Parent, Both Cycles					0.624***	0.154	0.578**	0.15
Family Breakdown					0.221	0.241	0.150	0.234
Family Formation					1.542***	0.258	1.502***	0.251
Parental Characteristics
Increase in Positive Parenting							-0.009	0.015
Increase in Ineffective Parenting							0.177***	0.012
Increase in Consistent Parenting							-0.019	0.013
Increase in Parental Depression							0.026***	0.007
Increase in Family Dysfunction							0.002	0.008
R-Square	0.389***		0.397***		0.403***		0.438***
* p<0.05 ** p<0.01 *** p<0.001

Table 9:
Regression of Prosocial Behaviours on Changes in Economic Situations, Family Structure and Parental Characteristics for Children of Immigrants, 4-9 Years Old

	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3		Model 4
	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E
Constant	5.758***	0.714	6.587***	0.733	6.585***	0.735	6.566***	0.732
Child's Age	0.081	0.060	0.075	0.059	0.073	0.059	0.093	0.059
Girl	0.214	0.203	0.224	0.202	0.257	0.205	0.317	0.202
PMK's Age	0.024	0.018	0.010	0.018	0.009	0.018	0.007	0.018
PMK's Education	0.772***	0.232	0.684***	0.231	0.705**	0.232	0.546*	0.228
Foreign-born	-0.562	0.324	-0.267	0.327	-0.230	0.328	-0.520	0.325
Length of Immigration	0.018	0.012	0.019	0.012	0.021	0.012	0.011	0.011
Non-white	1.546***	0.212	1.574***	0.224	1.603***	0.225	1.460***	0.221
Initial Prosocial Behaviours	0.366***	0.025	0.361***	0.025	0.360***	0.026	0.379***	0.026
Economic Situation
New Poor			-1.958*	0.868	-1.887*	0.872	-1.404	0.858
New Non-poor			-2.159*	0.88	-1.975*	0.892	-1.656	0.877
Persistent Poor			0.376	0.379	0.434	0.386	0.221	0.379
New Poor* Income Increase			0.804	1.076	0.844	1.077	1.286	1.062
New Non-poor* Income Increase			2.359	1.483	2.220	1.487	1.610	1.456
Persistent Poor* Income Increase			-2.069*	1.022	-1.938	1.050	-1.444	1.031
Persistent Welfare Dependence			-1.491*	0.597	-1.057	0.695	-1.058	0.682
Decreased Welfare Dependence			0.535	0.653	0.680	0.676	0.459	0.661
Increased Welfare Dependence			1.235*	0.508	1.490*	0.599	1.430*	0.591
Unemployed, Both Cycles			-0.026	0.548	-0.143*	0.576	0.117	0.565
Newly Unemployed			-0.302	0.319	-0.186	0.339	-0.154	0.337
Newly Employed			-0.466	0.281	-0.459	0.281	-0.302	0.277
Family Structure
Single Parent, Both Cycles					-0.473	0.477	-0.383	0.469
Family Breakdown					-0.603	0.580	-0.638	0.583
Parental Characteristics
Increase in Positive Parenting							-0.062	0.033
Increase in Ineffective Parenting							-0.204***	0.027
Increase in Consistent Parenting							-0.023	0.029
Increase in Parental Depression							0.015	0.016
Increase in Family Dysfunction							0.002	0.018
R-Square	0.243***		0.291***		0.292***		0.332***
* p<0.05 ** p<0.01 *** p<0.001

Table 10:
Regression of Prosocial Behaviours on Changes in Economic Situations, Family Structure and Parental Characteristics for Non-immigrant Children, 4-9 Years Old

	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3		Model 4
	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E
Constant	6.360***	0.369	6.348***	0.387	6.249***	0.388	6.319***	0.387
Child's Age	0.006	0.030	0.008	0.030	0.010	0.030	-0.019	0.030
Girl	0.860***	0.097	0.846***	0.097	0.844***	0.097	0.839***	0.097
PMK's Age	0.013	0.010	0.012	0.010	0.014	0.010	0.015	0.010
PMK's Education	0.090	0.103	0.090	0.104	0.107	0.105	0.116	0.104
Initial Prosocial Behaviours	0.468***	0.013	0.468***	0.013	0.468***	0.013	0.479***	0.013
Economic Situation
New Poor			-0.899*	0.394	-0.898*	0.395	-0.927*	0.392
New Non-poor			0.224	0.336	0.224	0.337	0.254	0.335
Persistent Poor			0.125	0.229	0.111	0.230	0.048	0.228
New Poor* Income Increase			-0.598	0.481	-0.594	0.482	-0.585	0.479
New Non-poor* Income Increase			-0.078	0.465	-0.181	0.466	-0.276	0.463
Persistent Poor* Income Increase			-0.153	0.481	-0.180	0.481	-0.018	0.478
Persistent Welfare Dependence			-0.091	0.307	-0.121	0.319	-0.163	0.317
Decreased Welfare Dependence			-0.200	0.272	-0.384	0.280	-0.361	0.279
Increased Welfare Dependence			-0.284	0.314	-0.343	0.322	-0.350	0.320
Unemployed, Both Cycles			0.092	0.282	0.104	0.284	0.129	0.282
Newly Unemployed			-0.035	0.169	-0.044	0.178	-0.053	0.176
Newly Employed			0.238	0.127	0.149	0.130	0.205	0.130
Family Structure
Single Parent, Both Cycles					-0.003	0.176	0.007	0.174
Family Breakdown					0.101	0.269	0.118	0.267
Family Formation					1.016***	0.299	1.096***	0.297
Parental Characteristics
Increase in Positive Parenting							0.081***	0.017
Increase in Ineffective Parenting							-0.074***	0.014
Increase in Consistent Parenting							0.008	0.015
Increase in Parental Depression							0.019*	0.009
Increase in Family Dysfunction							-0.016	0.009
R-Square	0.284***		0.286***		0.288***		0.300***
* p<0.05 ** p<0.01 *** p<0.001

Table 11:
Regression of Emotional Disorder on Changes in Economic Situations, Family Structure and Parental Characteristics for Children of Immigrants, 4-9 Years Old

	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3		Model 4
	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E
Constant	3.507***	0.506	3.258***	0.530	3.279***	0.523	3.322***	0.516
Child's Age	-0.004	0.041	-0.009	0.041	-0.002	0.041	-0.020	0.040
Girl	-0.080	0.141	-0.102	0.142	-0.104	0.141	-0.035	0.138
PMK's Age	-0.069***	0.013	-0.065***	0.013	-0.063***	0.013	-0.062***	0.013
PMK's Education	0.164	0.159	0.042	0.162	0.010	0.160	-0.033	0.155
Foreign-born	0.552*	0.222	0.373	0.228	0.307	0.227	0.292	0.220
Length of Immigration	0.035***	0.008	0.041***	0.008	0.036***	0.008	0.034***	0.008
Non-white	-0.105	0.145	0.032	0.156	-0.062	0.155	0.029	0.150
Initial Emotional Disorder	0.301***	0.027	0.315***	0.028	0.311***	0.027	0.375***	0.027
Economic Situation
New Poor			-0.726	0.599	-1.001	0.593	-0.726	0.578
New Non-poor			1.129*	0.468	0.768	0.466	0.356	0.455
Persistent Poor			-0.713**	0.273	-0.678*	0.274	-0.557*	0.266
New Poor* Income Increase			-0.797	0.597	-0.982	0.746	-0.527	0.727
New Non-poor* Income Increase			-0.930	0.597	-0.707	0.594	-0.296	0.580
Persistent Poor* Income Increase			-1.346	0.751	-1.161	0.758	-1.313	0.737
Persistent Welfare Dependence			-1.122*	0.433	0.309	0.488	-0.228*	0.475
Decreased Welfare Dependence			-0.788	0.431	0.701	0.448	0.695	0.434
Increased Welfare Dependence			0.996**	0.372	0.896*	0.422	1.187**	0.412
Unemployed, Both Cycles			-0.876*	0.390	-0.983*	0.406	-0.954*	0.395
Newly Unemployed			0.133	0.226	-0.348	0.237	0.571*	0.234
Newly Employed			0.257	0.196	0.193	0.194	0.097	0.188
Family Structure
Single Parent, Both Cycles					0.493	0.322	0.322	0.313
Family Breakdown					2.230***	0.382	1.840***	0.380
Parental Characteristics
Increase in Positive Parenting							-0.047*	0.022
Increase in Ineffective Parenting							0.110***	0.01
Increase in Consistent Parenting							-0.017	0.020
Increase in Parental Depression							0.050***	0.011
Increase in Family Dysfunction							0.009	0.012
R-Square	0.153***		0.177***		0.202***		0.263***
* p<0.05 ** p<0.01 *** p<0.001

Table 12:
Regression of Emotional Disorder on Changes in Economic Situations, Family Structure and Parental Characteristics for Non-immigrant Children, 4-9 Years Old

	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3		Model 4
	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E
Constant	1.627***	0.25	1.337***	0.265	1.269***	0.27	1.184***	0.260
Child's Age	-0.053*	0.02	-0.049*	0.021	-0.048*	0.02	-0.040*	0.021
Girl	0.020	0.07	0.018	0.069	0.012	0.07	0.025	0.067
PMK's Age	-0.001	0.01	0.004	0.007	0.006	0.01	0.006	0.007
PMK's Education	0.079	0.08	0.103	0.075	0.098	0.08	0.070	0.073
Initial Emotional Disorder	0.548***	0.01	0.540***	0.014	0.538***	0.01	0.564***	0.014
Economic Situation
New Poor			-0.232	0.291	-0.270	0.29	-0.208	0.283
New Non-poor			0.236	0.240	0.205	0.24	0.130	0.234
Persistent Poor			-0.087	0.165	-0.147	0.17	-0.063	0.161
New Poor* Income Increase			-0.236	0.354	-0.184	0.36	-0.150	0.345
New Non-poor* Income Increase			-0.099	0.332	-0.174	0.33	0.087	0.323
Persistent Poor* Income Increase			1.093**	0.347	1.104***	0.35	0.814*	0.337
Persistent Welfare Dependence			0.132	0.221	-0.003	0.23	0.001	0.222
Decreased Welfare Dependence			0.405*	0.196	0.263	0.2	0.130	0.196
Increased Welfare Dependence			0.712**	0.228	0.510*	0.23	0.466*	0.227
Unemployed, Both Cycles			0.421*	0.203	0.370	0.2	0.276	0.198
Newly Unemployed			-0.019	0.121	-0.115	0.13	-0.177	0.124
Newly Employed			0.166	0.091	0.108	0.09	0.056	0.091
Family Structure
Single Parent, Both Cycles					0.286*	0.13	0.257*	0.121
Family Breakdown					0.588**	0.2	0.526**	0.189
Family Formation					0.580**	0.21	0.563**	0.202
Parental Characteristics
Increase in Positive Parenting							-0.051*	0.012
Increase in Ineffective Parenting							0.123***	0.010
Increase in Consistent Parenting							-0.023*	0.011
Increase in Parental Depression							0.031***	0.006
Increase in Family Dysfunction							0.010	0.006
R-Square	0.263***		0.271***		0.274***		0.317***
* p<0.05 ** p<0.01 *** p<0.001

Table 13:
Regression of Conduct Disorder on Changes in Economic Situations, Family Structure and Parental Characteristics for Children of Immigrants, 4-9 Years Old

	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3		Model 4
	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E
Constant	1.273***	0.292	1.334***	0.301	1.350***	0.301	1.174***	0.302
Child's Age	-0.030	0.024	-0.037	0.024	-0.036	0.024	-0.032	0.024
Girl	-0.408***	0.081	-0.396***	0.081	-0.386***	0.082	-0.375***	0.081
PMK's Age	-0.018*	0.007	-0.019*	0.007	-0.019*	0.007	-0.017*	0.007
PMK's Education	0.349***	0.092	0.327***	0.093	0.328***	0.093	0.357***	0.092
Foreign-born	0.429***	0.129	0.314*	0.131	0.318*	0.132	0.370**	0.131
Length of Immigration	0.006	0.005	0.008	0.005	0.007	0.005	0.009	0.005
Non-white	-0.194*	0.085	-0.128*	0.090	-0.141	0.091	-0.075*	0.089
Initial Emotional Disorder	0.359***	0.024	0.351***	0.024	0.346***	0.024	0.373***	0.024
Economic Situation
New Poor			-1.285***	0.349	-1.306***	0.350	-1.389***	0.347
New Non-poor			0.376	0.269	0.317	0.271	0.310	0.268
Persistent Poor			-0.149	0.157	-0.111	0.160	-0.006	0.157
New Poor* Income Increase			-1.302**	0.448	-1.321**	0.448	-1.346**	0.443
New Non-poor* Income Increase			-0.347	0.343	-0.275	0.346	-0.342	0.342
Persistent Poor* Income Increase			0.965*	0.433	0.838	0.444	0.959*	0.438
Persistent Welfare Dependence			0.385	0.250	0.375	0.285	0.281	0.281
Decreased Welfare Dependence			1.119***	0.249	1.194***	0.263	1.248***	0.258
Increased Welfare Dependence			0.044	0.212	0.152	0.243	0.236	0.241
Unemployed, Both Cycles			0.257	0.225	0.160	0.238	0.066	0.234
Newly Unemployed			-0.240	0.130	-0.322*	0.139	-0.338*	0.139
Newly Employed			-0.146	0.113	-0.159	0.113	-0.188	0.111
Family Structure
Single Parent, Both Cycles					-0.110	0.188	0.180	0.185
Family Breakdown					0.357	0.224	0.350	0.226
Parental Characteristics
Increase in Positive Parenting							0.003	0.013
Increase in Ineffective Parenting							0.076***	0.011
Increase in Consistent Parenting							0.034**	0.012
Increase in Parental Depression							0.006	0.006
Increase in Family Dysfunction							0.009	0.007
R-Square	0.226***		0.262***		0.264***		0.300***
* p<0.05 ** p<0.01 *** p<0.001

Table 14:
Regression of Conduct Disorder on Changes in Economic Situations, Family Structure and Parental Characteristics for Non-immigrant Children, 4-9 Years Old

	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3		Model 4
	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E
Constant	1.033***	0.169	0.798***	0.177	0.789***	0.177	0.737***	0.174
Child's Age	-0.045***	0.014	-0.045***	0.014	-0.045***	0.014	-0.039***	0.014
Girl	-0.214***	0.046	-0.222***	0.046	-0.219***	0.046	-0.202***	0.045
PMK's Age	-0.001	0.005	0.004	0.005	0.004	0.005	0.004	0.005
PMK's Education	-0.092	0.050	-0.056	0.050	-0.055	0.05	-0.071	0.048
Initial Emotional Disorder	0.485***	0.012	0.473***	0.012	0.471***	0.012	0.494***	0.011
Economic Situation
New Poor			-0.137	0.191	-0.147	0.191	-0.116	0.186
New Non-poor			0.502**	0.158	0.478**	0.159	0.392*	0.154
Persistent Poor			-0.089	0.109	-0.092	0.109	-0.047	0.106
New Poor* Income Increase			-0.519*	0.234	-0.578*	0.234	-0.571*	0.228
New Non-poor* Income Increase			-0.884***	0.217	-0.908***	0.218	-0.723**	0.212
Persistent Poor* Income Increase			1.003***	0.230	1.013***	0.23	0.820***	0.224
Persistent Welfare Dependence			0.179	0.146	0.120	0.151	0.150	0.147
Decreased Welfare Dependence			0.200	0.129	0.125	0.133	0.070	0.130
Increased Welfare Dependence			0.457**	0.151	0.516***	0.155	0.503***	0.151
Unemployed, Both Cycles			0.576***	0.134	0.569***	0.134	0.503***	0.131
Newly Unemployed			-0.026	0.080	0.051	0.084	0.017	0.082
Newly Employed			0.051	0.060	0.043	0.062	0.001	0.060
Family Structure
Single Parent, Both Cycles					0.085	0.083	0.063	0.081
Family Breakdown					-0.332**	0.129	-0.368**	0.125
Family Formation					0.245	0.138	0.226	0.134
Parental Characteristics
Increase in Positive Parenting							-0.019*	0.008
Increase in Ineffective Parenting							0.092***	0.006
Increase in Consistent Parenting							-0.011	0.007
Increase in Parental Depression							0.010**	0.004
Increase in Family Dysfunction							0.001	0.004
R-Square	0.296***		0.312***		0.314***		0.353***
* p<0.05 ** p<0.01 *** p<0.001

Table 15:
Regression of Indirect Aggression of Changes in Economic Situations, Family Structure and Parental Characteristics for Children of Immigrants, 4-9 Years Old

	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3		Model 4
	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E
Constant	0.642*	0.316	0.173	0.318	0.235	0.316	0.037*	0.318
Child's Age	0.008	0.026	0.009	0.025	0.011	0.025	0.020	0.025
Girl	0.378***	0.088	0.373***	0.085	0.375***	0.085	0.415***	0.085
PMK's Age	-0.019*	0.008	-0.012	0.008	-0.013	0.008	-0.011	0.008
PMK's Education	-0.172	0.100	0.102	0.097	0.079	0.097	-0.080	0.096
Foreign-born	0.276*	0.140	0.244	0.139	0.214	0.139	0.242	0.137
Length of Immigration	0.026***	0.005	0.030***	0.005	0.028***	0.005	0.028***	0.005
Non-white	-0.289**	0.092	-0.342***	0.095	-0.375***	0.095	-0.353***	0.093
Initial Indirect Aggression	0.261***	0.026	0.296***	0.026	0.294***	0.026	0.306***	0.025
Economic Situation
New Poor			-1.628***	0.353	-1.741***	0.353	-1.734***	0.350
New Non-poor			2.253***	0.376	1.988***	0.380	1.846***	0.380
Persistent Poor			-0.342*	0.166	0.367*	0.168	0.477**	0.166
New Poor* Income Increase			-2.362***	0.442	-2.447***	0.440	-2.371***	0.436
New Non-poor* Income Increase			-2.379***	0.467	-2.142***	0.470	-2.022***	0.468
Persistent Poor* Income Increase			0.796	0.448	0.890	0.457	0.818	0.452
Persistent Welfare Dependence			0.099	0.265	-0.145	0.304	-0.204	0.300
Decreased Welfare Dependence			0.881***	0.261	0.918***	0.275	1.025***	0.270
Increased Welfare Dependence			0.037	0.218	0.110	0.255	0.224	0.252
Unemployed, Both Cycles			-0.328	0.235	-0.420	0.249	-0.529*	0.245
Newly Unemployed			0.169	0.135	-0.032	0.143	0.015	0.144
Newly Employed			0.429***	0.121	0.426***	0.120	0.410**	0.119
Family Structure
Single Parent, Both Cycles					0.055	0.203	-0.056	0.201
Family Breakdown					0.965***	0.245	0.885***	0.249
Parental Characteristics
Increase in Positive Parenting							-0.032*	0.014
Increase in Ineffective Parenting							0.057***	0.011
Increase in Consistent Parenting							0.043***	0.012
Increase in Parental Depression							0.008	0.007
Increase in Family Dysfunction							0.007	0.008
R-Square	0.149***		0.238***		0.249***		0.283***
* p<0.05 ** p<0.01 *** p<0.001

Table 16:
Regression of indirect Aggression on Changes in Economic Situations, Family Structure and Parental Characteristics for Non-immigrant Children, 4-9 Year Old

	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3		Model 4
	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E
Constant	1.273***	0.176	1.066***	0.187	1.036***	0.186	1.036***	0.187
Child's Age	-0.003	0.015	-0.002	0.015	0.001	0.015	0.002	0.015
Girl	0.308***	0.049	0.300***	0.049	0.301***	0.048	0.296***	0.048
PMK's Age	-0.015**	0.005	-0.011*	0.005	-0.011*	0.005	-0.012*	0.005
PMK's Education	-0.163**	0.052	-0.147**	0.053	-0.153**	0.053	-0.164**	0.052
Initial Indirect Aggression	0.454***	0.015	0.452***	0.015	0.446***	0.015	0.457***	0.015
Economic Situation
New Poor			-0.076	0.201	0.030	0.200	0.042	0.199
New Non-poor			0.609***	0.168	0.545***	0.168	0.490**	0.167
Persistent Poor			-0.046	0.166	-0.086	0.116	-0.062	0.116
New Poor* Income Increase			0.095	0.251	0.038	0.251	0.028	0.25
New Non-poor* Income Increase			-1.049***	0.233	-1.116***	0.233	-1.007***	0.232
Persistent Poor* Income Increase			0.728**	0.243	0.766**	0.243	0.692**	0.241
Persistent Welfare Dependence			0.074	0.155	-0.119	0.160	-0.091	0.159
Decreased Welfare Dependence			0.189	0.136	0.011	0.140	-0.021	0.139
Increased Welfare Dependence			0.004	0.160	-0.031	0.164	-0.038	0.163
Unemployed, Both Cycles			0.258	0.143	0.202	0.144	0.153	0.143
Newly Unemployed			0.120	0.085	0.183*	0.089	0.163	0.089
Newly Employed			0.160*	0.064	0.133*	0.066	0.117	0.066
Family Structure
Single Parent, Both Cycles					0.349***	0.087	0.344***	0.087
Family Breakdown					-0.172	0.136	-0.195	0.136
Family Formation					0.567***	0.149	0.550***	0.148
Parental Characteristics
Increase in Positive Parenting							-0.011	0.009
Increase in Ineffective Parenting							0.049***	0.007
Increase in Consistent Parenting							-0.002	0.008
Increase in Parental Depression							0.006	0.004
Increase in Family Dysfunction							0.001	0.005
R-Square	0.203***		0.212***		0.217***		0.229***
* p<0.05 ** p<0.01 *** p<0.001

4.2 Older children — 10- to 11-year-olds

For children who were 10- to 11-years-old at the cycle 1 survey, we did not conduct separate analyses for immigrant and non-immigrant children due to sample size constraints. Also, whereas for the younger age group of children, developmental outcomes were reported by the person most knowledgeable (PMK) about the child, self-reported outcomes were used for children in the older group. Many previous studies suggest that parent-reported and children's self-reported developmental behaviours in general are weakly to moderately correlated.

4.2.1 Economic changes in the family

Families with older children tended to be in a better economic situation than those with younger children. They were more likely to be persistently non-poor, without dependence on social welfare, and with stable employment. Meanwhile, they also did not show the large economic improvements of non-immigrant families with younger children. As shown in Table 17, there were slightly more newly poor families than newly non-poor families. The number of families that decreased their welfare dependence was just slightly higher than the number of families that increased their welfare dependence. There were more families with newly employed parent(s) (19.5%) than with newly unemployed parent(s) (11.4%).

Table 17:
Economic Changes in the Family, 10-11 Years Old

Variables	Categories	Frequency	Percent
Poverty	Non-poor	1670	80.8
	Newly Poor	120	5.8
	Newly Non-poor	103	5.0
	Persistently Poor	174	8.4
Welfare Dependence	Persistent Dependence	87	4.2
	Decreased Dependence	59	2.9
	Increased Dependence	55	2.7
	No Dependence	1865	90.3
Employment	No Parents Working	99	4.8
	Stable Employment	1327	64.2
	New Unemployment	236	11.4
	New Employment	404	19.5

Changes in family poverty status were moderately related to changes in welfare dependence (Cramer's V (CV)= .37, contingency coefficient (C)= .54, p<.000). Among persistently poor families, 39.9% persistently depended on social welfare, 10.4% decreased their welfare dependence, 3.5% increased their welfare dependence, and 46.2% had no dependence on welfare. The corresponding percentages were 6.7%, 3.3%, 16.7% and 73.3%, respectively for newly poor families, and 6.8%, 13.6%, 1.9%, and 77.7%, respectively for newly non-poor families. Among persistently non-poor families, about 96.9% never depended on social welfare in the two-year period.

Changes in poverty status were also related to changes in employment (CV = .33, C= .49, p<.000). Among persistently non-poor families, less than 1% had no parent working at both cycles of the survey, and about 71.2% maintained stable employment. In contrast, in persistently poor families, 40.1% had no parent working at both cycles of the survey, and only 27.9% maintained stable employment. Newly non-poor families were more likely to have at least one parent moving into employment (39.2%) than becoming unemployed (6.9%). Among newly poor families, 30.3% had at least one parent becoming employed, while 23.5% had at least one parent becoming unemployed.

4.2.2 Changes in poverty status and changes in family environment

As shown in Table 18, children in the 10- to 11-year-old group living in single-parent families increased from 17.2% to 18.4% in the two-year study period. About 79.2% of children lived in two-parent families at both cycles, and 14.9% lived in single-parent families at both cycles.

Table 18:
Changes in the Family Environment, 10-11 Years Old

	1994/95	1996/97	Significance of Difference
% of Single Parent	17.2%	18.4%	***
Parental Depression	4.723	4.374	***
Family Dysfunction	7.948	8.074	***
*** p<0.001

While levels of parental depression declined over the two-year period, levels of family dysfunction increased. We were unable to examine changes in parenting for the older children, since only the PMK report of parenting was available at cycle 1, and child self-reported parenting was available at cycle 2.

As shown in Table 19, persistently poor families tended to have the highest levels of parental depression and family dysfunction, followed by newly poor families. Newly non-poor families and persistently poor families had lower levels of parental nurturance, as per the child-reported parenting scale.

Table 19:
Changes in Poverty Status and Parental Characteristics at Cycle 2, 10-11 Years Old

	Parental Nurturance	Parental Rejection	Parental Depression	Family Dysfunction
1. Non-Poor	18.719	9.440	3.723	7.866
2. Newly Poor	18.834	8.961	6.645	9.335
3. Newly Non-poor	17.015	8.225	4.340	8.030
4. Persistently Poor	17.646	9.135	8.776	9.644
ANOVA, P-Value	.000	.104	.000	.000
Significant Contrasts*	1-3		1-2	1-2
	1-4		1-4	1-4
	2-3		2-3
			2-4
			3-4
* Bonferroni post-hoc test

4.2.3 Changes in poverty status and developmental outcomes

At the bivariate level, changes in poverty status were not significantly related to changes in children's self-reported hyperactivity, prosocial behaviours, emotional disorder, and conduct disorder in the 10- to 11-year-old age group (Table 20). For indirect aggression, children in newly poor families had the largest increases, while children in persistently poor families had the largest decreases. Change in poverty status also made no difference in children's developmental outcomes at cycle 2 (Table 21). The only exception was conduct disorder in which children in persistently poor families exhibited higher levels than those in persistently non-poor families.

Multivariate analyses indicated that the effects of changes in poverty status were somewhat conditioned by absolute income changes, and that some other economic variables also had important effects on some developmental outcomes. Tables 22 to 26 present multivariate analyses for hyperactivity, prosocial behaviours, emotional disorder, conduct disorder, and indirect aggression. Since we did not have change scores of parenting variables for children in the 10- to 11-year-old age group, we used cycle 1 values of positive, ineffective, and consistent parenting for Model 4 in each table.

Table 20:
Changes in Poverty Status and Changes in Developmental Behaviours, 10-11 Year Old

	Hyperactivity- inattention (T2-T1)	Prosocial Behaviour (T2-T1)	Emotional Disorder (T2-T1)	Conduct Disorder (T2-T1)	Indirect Aggression (T2-T1)
1. Non-poor	-.03	-1.40	-.39	-.05	-.18
2. Newly Poor	-.04	-2.20	-.28	-.33	.74
3. Newly Non-poor	-.55	-.77	-.83	-.33	-.41
4. Persistently Poor	.21	-.95	-.37	-.04	-.63
ANOVA, P-Value	.523	.093	.782	.500	.000
Significant Contrasts*					1-2
					2-3
					2-4
* Bonferroni post-hoc test

Table 21:
Changes in Poverty Status and Developmental Behaviours, 10-11 Year Old

	Hyperactivity- inattention	Prosocial Behaviour	Emotional Disorder	Conduct Disorder	Indirect Aggression
1. Non-Poor	3.96	13.32	3.41	1.15	1.68
2. Newly Poor	3.63	13.84	3.81	1.16	2.00
3. Newly Non-Poor	4.33	14.06	4.08	1.40	1.99
4. Persistently Poor	4.65	13.08	3.46	1.69	1.83
ANOVA, P-Value	.031	.176	.207	.007	.202
Significant Contrasts*				1-4
* Bonferroni post-hoc test

A. Hyperactivity

In Table 22 for regression models using hyperactivity as the dependent variable, the explained variances increased by 2.3% from Model 1 to Model 2 due to the addition of economic variables. All the significant variables in Model 2 remained significant in Model 4 where variables representing family structure and parental characteristics were controlled. According to the results in Model 4, larger decreases in absolute income were associated with lower levels of children's hyperactivity among newly poor families. Conversely, children in newly non-poor families showed lower levels of hyperactivity than those living in persistently non-poor families if their families had a substantial absolute income increase. The average absolute income more than doubled (105%) in the two-year study period among newly non-poor families. Notably, this was also the amount of income increase beyond which children in this group had similar levels of hyperactivity as those in persistently non-poor families. While decreased welfare dependence reduced children's hyperactivity, increased welfare dependence had the opposite effect.

Changes in family structure had no significant effects on children's self-reported hyperactivity. Higher levels of consistent parenting at cycle 1 were associated with lower levels of hyperactivity. Increases in family dysfunction were marginally associated with decreases in children's hyperactivity. Non-white children tended to have higher levels of hyperactivity than white children, while immigrant status made no difference.

B. Prosocial behaviours

In Table 23, for prosocial behaviours, changes in family structure and parental characteristics had no significant effects on changes in outcome. The addition of economic variables only increased the explained variance from Model 1 to Model 2 by 1.1%. Among newly poor families, larger decreases in absolute income were associated with larger decreases in children's prosocial behaviours. Increased welfare dependence promoted prosocial behaviours. Persistent unemployment of parents brought down children's prosocial behaviours. Girls were more likely to increase their prosocial behaviours than boys. Race and immigrant status made no difference.

C. Emotional disorder

In Table 24, for emotional disorder, the addition of economic variables increased very little of the explained variance from Model 1 to Model 2. However, the conditional effect of absolute income increases among newly non-poor families remained significant in Model 4. Figure 5 illustrated this conditional effect based on the coefficients in Model 4. On the x-axis, four points of absolute income change were included: the mean absolute increase (105%) among newly non-poor families, one standard deviation below the mean (left), one and two standard deviations above the mean (right). Only when absolute income at least doubled did children in newly non-poor families exhibit similar or lower levels of emotional disorder than children in persistently non-poor families.

In model 4, other economic variables had no significant effects. While positive parenting at cycle 1 was marginally associated with increased emotional disorder, consistent parenting showed the opposite effect. Increased family dysfunction was marginally associated with deceased levels of children's emotional disorder. Girls had larger increases in emotional disorder than boys. While immigrant status made no differences, non-white children had lower levels of emotional disorder than white children.

D. Conduct disorder

In Table 25, for conduct disorder, the addition of economic variables increased explained variance by only 1.8% from Model 1 to Model 2. Changes in family structure added even less explained variance, while none of the parental characteristics were significant. According to Model 4, the effect of moving out of poverty was conditioned by absolute income change, a result similar to that found in the models for emotional disorder. As Figure 6 illustrates, only when absolute average income more than doubled did the children in newly non-poor families show similar or lower levels of conduct disorder than children in persistently non-poor families. Both persistent welfare dependence and decreased welfare dependence were associated with lower levels of children's conduct disorder relative to no welfare dependence. New unemployment of parents elevated children's conduct disorder. While family breakdown or formation had no significant effects, living with single parents over a prolonged period elevated children's conduct disorder. There were no significant differences due to immigrant status. Non-white children had marginally higher levels of conduct disorder than white children. Girls had lower levels of conduct disorder than boys.

E. Indirect aggression

In Table 26, for indirect aggression, no economic variables had significant effects. While living with a single parent for a prolonged period intensified children's indirect aggression, the change from a two-parent to a single-parent family yielded children's indirect aggression. Lower levels of ineffective parenting and higher levels of consistent parenting at cycle 1 were associated with reduced indirect aggression. Both country of birth and race had no significant effects.

Table 22:
Regression of Hyperactivity on Changes in Economic Situations, Family Structure and Parental Characteristics for Children 10-11 Years Old

	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3		Model 4
	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E
Constant	2.299	1.586	1.631	1.590	1.657	1.593	2.668	1.709
Child's Age	-0.039	0.144	0.018	0.144	0.018	0.144	0.028	0.144
Girl	0.127	0.144	0.102	0.144	0.095	0.144	0.080	0.144
PMK's Age	0.013	0.015	0.013	0.015	0.012	0.015	0.011	0.016
PMK's Education	-0.328*	0.154	-0.301	0.154	-0.302	0.154	-0.290	0.155
Child of Immigrants	-0.225	0.203	-0.119	0.203	-0.107	0.205	-0.095	0.204
Non-white	0.675*	0.287	0.774**	0.294	0.766**	0.294	0.707*	0.297
Initial Hyperactivity	0.444***	0.024	0.434***	0.024	0.434***	0.024	0.424***	0.024
Economic Situation
New Poor			0.896	0.602	0.857	0.605	0.805	0.603
New Non-poor			1.717**	0.611	1.697**	0.612	1.750**	0.610
Persistent Poor			0.627	0.344	0.584	0.352	0.508	0.352
New Poor* Income Increase			2.110**	0.734	2.073**	0.738	2.062**	0.738
New Non-poor* Income Increase			-2.637**	0.907	-2.606**	0.913	-2.658**	0.912
Persistent Poor* Income Increase			-1.006	0.803	-1.046	0.808	-0.967	0.806
Persistent Welfare Dependence			0.177	0.500	0.109	0.509	0.175	0.508
Decreased Welfare Dependence			-1.062*	0.424	-1.029*	0.431	-0.995*	0.434
Increased Welfare Dependence			1.130*	0.477	1.126*	0.478	1.234*	0.480
Unemployed, Both Cycles			0.141	0.468	0.132	0.469	0.097	0.468
Newly Unemployed			-0.289	0.241	-0.253	0.258	-0.211	0.258
Newly Employed			0.273	0.198	0.318	0.203	0.269	0.204
Family Structure
Single Parent, Both Cycles					0.165	0.232	0.157	0.233
Family Breakdown					-0.118	0.413	-0.104	0.412
Family Formation					-0.396	0.580	-0.455	0.579
Parental Characteristics
Increase in Positive Parenting							-0.001	0.027
Increase in Ineffective Parenting							0.005	0.021
Increase in Consistent Parenting							-0.069***	0.021
Increase in Parental Depression							0.003	0.014
Increase in Family Dysfunction							-0.030*	0.014
R-Square	0.213***		0.236***		0.237***		0.247***
* p<0.05 ** p<0.01 *** p<0.001

Table 23:
Regression of Prosocial Behaviours on Changes in Economic Situations, Family Structure and Parental Characteristics for Children 10-11 Years Old

	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3		Model 4
	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E
Constant	8.257***	1.945	8.353***	1.969	8.320***	1.970	8.356***	2.108
Child's Age	-0.306	0.177	-0.305	0.177	-0.310	0.177	-0.323	0.177
Girl	1.292***	0.180	1.300***	0.182	1.321***	0.182	1.339***	0.182
PMK's Age	0.021	0.018	0.018	0.019	0.021	0.019	0.017	0.019
PMK's Education	0.285	0.190	0.300	0.192	0.321	0.192	0.307	0.193
Child of Immigrants	0.324	0.244	0.349	0.247	0.283	0.250	0.248	0.250
Non-white	-0.017	0.347	0.024	0.357	0.016	0.357	-0.029	0.362
Initial Prosocial Behaviours	0.452***	0.026	0.446***	0.026	0.447***	0.026	0.434***	0.026
Economic Situation
New Poor			0.903	0.776	1.067	0.780	1.224	0.778
New Non-poor			0.179	0.727	0.205	0.728	0.214	0.726
Persistent Poor			0.447	0.433	0.573	0.441	0.642	0.440
New Poor* Income Increase			1.786*	0.911	1.951*	0.914	2.152*	0.914
New Non-poor* Income Increase			1.079	1.078	1.229	1.084	1.172	1.081
Persistent Poor* Income Increase			-0.619	0.997	-0.563	1.002	-0.604	1.000
Persistent Welfare Dependence			0.242	0.612	0.473	0.626	0.345	0.625
Decreased Welfare Dependence			-0.364	0.529	-0.249	0.535	-0.451	0.539
Increased Welfare Dependence			1.312*	0.644	1.260*	0.645	1.067	0.647
Unemployed, Both Cycles			-1.297*	0.565	-1.295*	0.564	-1.201*	0.563
Newly Unemployed			0.233	0.307	0.106	0.328	0.081	0.328
Newly Employed			0.133	0.244	0.124	0.251	0.178	0.251
Family Structure
Single Parent, Both Cycles					-0.471	0.28	-0.393	0.283
Family Breakdown					0.498	0.53	0.448	0.533
Family Formation					-0.564	0.68	-0.435	0.681
Parental Characteristics
Increase in Positive Parenting							0.039	0.034
Increase in Ineffective Parenting							-0.047	0.026
Increase in Consistent Parenting							0.025	0.026
Increase in Parental Depression							0.016	0.017
Increase in Family Dysfunction							0.031	0.017
R-Square	0.245***		0.256***		0.258***		0.260***
* p<0.05 ** p<0.01 *** p<0.001

Table 24:
Regression of Emotional Disorder on Changes in Economic Situations, Family Structure and Parental Characteristics for Children 10-11 Years Old

	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3		Model 4
	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E
Constant	0.391	1.565	0.403	1.584	0.290	1.586	0.646	1.701
Child's Age	0.089	0.143	0.097	0.144	0.106	0.144	0.113	0.143
Girl	0.669***	0.142	0.653***	0.144	0.656***	0.144	0.670***	0.143
PMK's Age	0.006	0.015	0.005	0.015	0.005	0.015	0.005	0.015
PMK's Education	0.081	0.154	0.091	0.156	0.074	0.156	0.076	0.156
Child of Immigrants	-0.131	0.199	-0.095	0.202	-0.066	0.203	-0.028	0.203
Non-white	-0.549*	0.280	-0.549	0.288	-0.538	0.288	-0.625*	0.290
Initial Emotional Disorder	0.406***	0.024	0.403***	0.024	0.401***	0.024	0.396***	0.025
Economic Situation
New Poor			0.222	0.623	0.209	0.626	0.229	0.622
New Non-poor			1.588*	0.624	1.581*	0.625	1.602*	0.622
Persistent Poor			0.297	0.345	0.229	0.353	0.156	0.351
New Poor* Income Increase			0.015	0.742	0.028	0.744	0.163	0.741
New Non-poor* Income Increase			-2.125*	0.920	-2.272*	0.925	-2.296*	0.921
Persistent Poor* Income Increase			0.758	0.802	0.691	0.807	0.780	0.802
Persistent Welfare Dependence			0.030	0.515	-0.036	0.527	0.024	0.525
Decreased Welfare Dependence			-0.439	0.424	-0.523	0.429	-0.614	0.431
Increased Welfare Dependence			0.673	0.483	0.672	0.484	0.662	0.485
Unemployed, Both Cycles			-0.376	0.474	-0.366	0.474	-0.388	0.472
Newly Unemployed			-0.316	0.245	-0.386	0.263	-0.357	0.262
Newly Employed			-0.284	0.198	-0.338	0.204	-0.397	0.204
Family Structure
Single Parent, Both Cycles					0.162	0.229	0.184	0.230
Family Breakdown					0.351	0.422	0.390	0.420
Family Formation					0.755	0.540	0.802	0.537
Parental Characteristics
Increase in Positive Parenting							0.059*	0.027
Increase in Ineffective Parenting							0.010	0.021
Increase in Consistent Parenting							-0.076***	0.021
Increase in Parental Depression							0.025	0.013
Increase in Family Dysfunction							-0.029*	0.014
R-Square	0.192***		0.200***		0.202***		0.216***
* p<0.05 ** p<0.01 *** p<0.001

Table 25:
Regression of Conduct Disorder on Changes in Economic Situations, Family Structure and Parental Characteristics for Children 10-11 Years Old

	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3		Model 4
	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E
Constant	2.459*	0.965	2.294*	0.969	2.292*	0.966	2.294*	1.046
Child's Age	-0.074	0.089	-0.053	0.089	-0.047	0.089	-0.041	0.089
Girl	-0.359***	0.091	-0.385***	0.092	-0.412***	0.092	-0.410***	0.092
PMK's Age	-0.015	0.009	-0.016	0.010	-0.019*	0.010	-0.017	0.010
PMK's Education	-0.244*	0.096	-0.255**	0.097	-0.269**	0.097	-0.279**	0.097
Child of Immigrants	-0.136	0.124	-0.153	0.125	-0.097	0.126	-0.079	0.126
Non-white	0.361*	0.177	0.386*	0.181	0.393*	0.181	0.382*	0.184
Initial Conduct Disorder	0.365***	0.026	0.357***	0.026	0.351***	0.026	0.345***	0.027
Economic Situation
New Poor			0.023	0.378	-0.097	0.378	-0.100	0.377
New Non-poor			1.080**	0.390	1.065**	0.389	1.054**	0.389
Persistent Poor			0.521*	0.216	0.417	0.220	0.379	0.220
New Poor* Income Increase			0.266	0.454	0.135	0.455	0.158	0.455
New Non-poor* Income Increase			-1.565**	0.577	-1.694**	0.579	-1.653**	0.579
Persistent Poor* Income Increase			0.430	0.500	0.404	0.501	0.442	0.500
Persistent Welfare Dependence			-0.478	0.310	-0.677*	0.315	-0.627*	0.315
Decreased Welfare Dependence			-0.473	0.268	-0.574*	0.270	-0.541*	0.272
Increased Welfare Dependence			0.571	0.304	-0.527	0.303	-0.553	0.305
Unemployed, Both Cycles			-0.195	0.287	-0.189	0.286	-0.212	0.286
Newly Unemployed			0.317*	0.152	0.440**	0.162	0.424**	0.162
Newly Employed			-0.085	0.121	-0.070	0.124	-0.092	0.125
Family Structure
Single Parent, Both Cycles					0.415**	0.142	0.399**	0.143
Family Breakdown					-0.463	0.264	-0.442	0.264
Family Formation					0.432	0.345	0.454	0.345
Parental Characteristics
Increase in Positive Parenting							0.009	0.017
Increase in Ineffective Parenting							0.020	0.013
Increase in Consistent Parenting							-0.024	0.013
Increase in Parental Depression							0.016	0.009
Increase in Family Dysfunction							-0.012	0.008
R-Square	0.161***		0.179***		0.186***		0.193***
* p<0.05 ** p<0.01 *** p<0.001

Table 26:
Regression of Indirect Aggression on Changes in Economic Situations, Family Structure and Parental Characteristics for Children 10-11 Years Old

	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3		Model 4
	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E	B	Std.E
Constant	4.470***	1.000	4.387***	1.012	4.428***	1.010	4.569***	1.090
Child's Age	-0.172	0.092	-0.172	0.093	-0.170	0.093	-0.167	0.092
Girl	0.050	0.092	0.056	0.093	0.030	0.093	0.012	0.092
PMK's Age	-0.042***	0.010	-0.040***	0.010	-0.042***	0.010	-0.038***	0.010
PMK's Education	-0.092	0.100	-0.084	0.102	-0.096	0.102	-0.074	0.102
Child of Immigrants	0.187	0.130	0.172	0.132	0.217	0.132	0.228	0.132
Non-white	0.125	0.182	0.095	0.187	0.101	0.187	0.167	0.188
Initial Indirect Aggression	0.346***	0.024	0.345***	0.025	0.344***	0.024	0.325***	0.025
Economic Situation
New Poor			0.633	0.378	0.523	0.378	0.441	0.375
New Non-poor			0.651	0.395	0.625	0.393	0.653	0.390
Persistent Poor			-0.071	0.230	-0.151	0.233	-0.150	0.232
New Poor* Income Increase			0.201	0.460	0.061	0.460	-0.054	0.458
New Non-poor* Income Increase			-0.955	0.585	-1.050	0.586	-1.000	0.581
Persistent Poor* Income Increase			0.530	0.528	0.521	0.530	0.470	0.526
Persistent Welfare Dependence			0.100	0.321	-0.099	0.327	-0.034	0.325
Decreased Welfare Dependence			0.098	0.278	0.003	0.280	0.060	0.281
Increased Welfare Dependence			-0.318	0.323	-0.293	0.322	-0.244	0.322
Unemployed, Both Cycles			-0.054	0.301	-0.045	0.300	-0.114	0.297
Newly Unemployed			-0.091	0.161	0.066	0.172	0.081	0.171
Newly Employed			-0.162	0.128	-0.138	0.131	-0.180	0.131
Family Structure
Single Parent, Both Cycles					0.375*	0.149	0.307*	0.149
Family Breakdown					-0.608*	0.271	-0.558*	0.269
Family Formation					0.347	0.366	0.290	0.363
Parental Characteristics
Increase in Positive Parenting							0.004	0.018
Increase in Ineffective Parenting							0.040***	0.013
Increase in Consistent Parenting							-0.045***	0.014
Increase in Parental Depression							-0.012	0.009
Increase in Family Dysfunction							0.007	0.009
R-Square	0.144***		0.150***		0.158***		0.176***
* p<0.05 ** p<0.01 *** p<0.001

• ⁴Cramer's V (CV) is an index of strength of relationship for use with larger than 2 by 2 tables. This index is free of the dependence on table size, it varies between 0 and 1. Contingency coefficient (C) is a widely used index of relationship where larger than 2 by 2 tables are involved. Values of C can never be greater than 1, its maximum value is strongly influenced by the size of the chi-square table. In a 4 by 4 table, as in our analysis, the maximum value of C is .866.
• ⁵Throughout the results section, the marker ^(u) was used to flag the estimates that were based on an unweighted sample size smaller than 30, or/and with a coefficient of variation larger than 16.5%.