Understanding the rural - urban reading gap

Appendix B: Definitions and Concepts

Definitions and Concepts

Note: Several of the measures in this report reflect indices that summarise responses from students or school representatives (typically principals) to a series of related questions. It is important to note that negative values in an index do not necessarily imply that students responded negatively to the underlying questions. A negative value merely indicates that a group of students (or all students, collectively, in a single country) or principals responded less positively than all students or principals did on average across OECD countries. Likewise, a positive value on an index indicates that a group of students or principals responded more favourably, or more positively, than students or principals did, on average, in OECD countries.

Measures of reading, mathematics and science literacy

Reading literacy is defined in PISA as the ability to understand, use and reflect on written texts in order to achieve one's goals, to develop one's knowledge and potential, and to participate effectively in society. This definition goes beyond the notion that reading literacy means decoding written material and literal comprehension. Reading incorporates understanding and reflecting on texts. Literacy involves the ability of individuals to use written information to fulfil their goals, and the consequent ability of complex modern societies to use written information to function effectively.

Mathematical literacy is defined in PISA as the capacity to identify, understand and engage in mathematics, and to make well-founded judgements about the role that mathematics plays in an individual's current and future private life, occupational life, social life with peers and relatives, and life as a constructive, concerned and reflective citizen. As with reading, the definition revolves around the wider uses of mathematics in people's lives rather than being limited to mechanical operations. "Mathematical literacy" is used here to indicate the ability to put mathematical knowledge and skills to functional use rather than just mastering them within a school curriculum. To "engage in" mathematics covers not simply physical or social actions (such as deciding how much change to give someone in a shop) but also wider uses, including taking a point of view and appreciating things expressed mathematically (such as having an opinion about a government's spending plans). Mathematical literacy also implies the ability to pose and solve mathematical problems in a variety of situations, as well as the inclination to do so, which often relies on personal traits such as self-confidence and curiosity.

Scientific literacy relates to the ability to think scientifically in a world in which science and technology shape lives. Such literacy requires an understanding of scientific concepts as well as an ability to apply a scientific perspective. PISA defines scientific literacy as the capacity to use scientific knowledge, to identify questions, and to draw evidence-based conclusions in order to understand and help make decisions about the natural world and the changes made to it through human activity.

II. Individual, family, and school characteristics

Reading Enjoyment: This index was derived from students' level of agreement with the following statements: I read only if I have to; reading is one of my favourite hobbies; I like talking about books with other people; I find it hard to finish books; I feel happy if I receive a book as a present; for me reading is a waste of time; I enjoy going to a bookstore or a library; I read only to get information that I need; and, I cannot sit still and read for more than a few minutes.

Students' cultural activities: This index was derived from students' reports on how often they had participated in the following activities during the preceding year: visited a museum or art gallery; attended an opera, ballet or classical symphony concert; and watched live theatre.

Homework time: This variable was collected as part of the Youth in Transition Survey (YITS). Students were asked about how many hours per week they usually spend on homework outside class (during free periods and at home).

Career expectations: Students were asked to report what kind of job they expect to have when they are about thirty years old. This information was then classified by occupational status according to the International Socio-Economic Index of Occupational Status (ISEI) (defined under socio-economic status).

Student's education expectations: This variable was collected as part of the Youth in Transition Survey (YITS). Students reported what is the highest level of education they would like to get.

Transportation time: This variable was collected as part of the Youth in Transition Survey (YITS). Students were asked how long it usually takes them to travel to school one way. This variable included use of all forms of transportation.

Participation in school extracurricular activities: This variable was collected as part of the Youth in Transition Survey (YITS). Students were asked how many total hours per week they usually spend participating in school clubs, teams or other school-based extracurricular activities.

Participation in non-school extracurricular activities: This variable was collected as part of the Youth in Transition Survey (YITS). Students were asked how many total hours per week they usually spend participating in non-school clubs, teams, lessons or other non-school organised activities.

Computer and Internet at home: Students were asked how many computers they had in their home and whether they had a link to the Internet in their home.

Computer and Internet use at school: Students were asked how often they use computers and the Internet at school.

Parents' occupational status: Students were asked to report their mothers' and fathers' occupation, and to state whether each parent was: in full-time paid work; part-time paid work; not working but looking for a paid job; or "other". The open-ended responses were then coded in accordance with the International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO 1988).

The PISA International Socio-Economic Index of Occupational Status (ISEI): was derived from student responses on parental occupation. The index captures the attributes of occupations that convert parents' education into income. The index was derived by the optimal scaling of occupation groups to maximise the indirect effect of education on income through occupation and to minimise the direct effect of education on income, net of occupation (both effects being net of age). For more information on the methodology, see Ganzeboom, de Graaf and Treiman (1992). The PISA International Socio-Economic Index of Occupational Status is based on either the father's or mother's occupations, whichever is the higher.

Parent's educational attainment: This variable was derived as the highest level of attainment achieved by either parent.

Number of books at home: Students reported an estimate of how many books there are in their home. They were given a calculation that there are approximately 40 books per metre of shelving and were asked not to include magazines.

Parental academic interest: The index of parental academic interest was derived from students' reports on the frequency with which their parents (or guardians) engaged with them in the following activities: discussing political or social issues; discussing books, films or television programmes; and listening to classical music.

Parental social interest: This index was derived from students' reports on the frequency with which their parents (or guardians) engaged with them in the following activities: discussing how well they are doing at school; eating the evening meal with them around a table; and spending time simply talking with them.

Home cultural possessions: This index was derived from students' reports on the availability of the following items in their home: classical literature (examples were given), books of poetry and works of art (examples were given).

Home educational resources: This index was derived from students' reports on the availability and number of the following items in their home: a dictionary, a quiet place to study, a desk for study, textbooks and calculators.

Disciplinary climate: This index summarises students' reports on the frequency with which, in their "class of the language of assessment": the teacher has to wait a long time for students to quiet down; students cannot work well; students don't listen to what the teacher says; students don't start working for a long time after the lesson begins; there is noise and disorder; and, at the start of class, more than five minutes are spent doing nothing. High values indicate greater problems with disciplinary climate.

Teacher-student relations: This index was derived from students' reports on their level of agreement with the following statements: students get along well with most teachers; most teachers are interested in students' well-being; most of my teachers really listen to what I have to say; if I need extra help, I will receive it from my teachers; and most of my teachers treat me fairly.

Teacher support: This index was derived from students' reports on the frequency with which: the teacher shows an interest in every student's learning; the teacher gives students an opportunity to express opinions; the teacher helps students with their work; the teacher continues teaching until the students understand; the teacher does a lot to help students; and, the teacher helps students with their learning.

School size: Number of 15-year olds in school

Schools offering extracurricular activities: This index is the proportion of students in a school reporting that their school offers extracurricular activities.

Negative teacher behaviour: This index was derived from principals' reports on the extent to which the learning by 15-year-olds was hindered by: the low expectations of teachers; poor student-teacher relations; teachers not meeting individual students' needs; teacher absenteeism; staff resisting change; teachers being too strict with students; and students not being encouraged to achieve their full potential. High values indicate higher levels of negative behaviour.

Student behaviour: This index summarises principals' perceptions of the school's disciplinary climate by reporting the extent to which learning by 15-year-olds in their school was hindered by: student absenteeism; disruption of classes by students; students skipping classes; students lacking respect for teachers; the use of alcohol or illegal drugs; and students intimidating or bullying other students. High values indicate problems with student behaviour.

Teacher morale and commitment: This index was derived from the extent to which school principals agreed with the following statements: the morale of the teachers in this school is high; teachers work with enthusiasm; teachers take pride in this school; and teachers value academic performance.

Student-teacher ratio: This index is the ratio between the school size and the total number of teachers. Part-time teachers contributed 0.5 and full-time teachers 1.0 to the total number of teachers.

Teacher shortage: This index was derived from the principals' views on how much learning by 15-year-old students was hindered by the shortage or inadequacy of teachers in the "language of assessment", mathematics or science. High values indicate problems with teacher shortage.

Inadequacy of instructional resources: This index was derived based on the school principals' reports on the extent to which learning by 15-year-olds was hindered by: not enough computers for instruction; lack of instructional materials in the library; lack of multi-media resources for instruction; inadequate science laboratory equipment; and inadequate facilities for the fine arts. High values indicate a low quality of educational resources.

Inadequacy of material resources: This index was derived from principals' reports on the extent to which learning by 15-year-olds in their school was hindered by: poor condition of buildings; poor heating and cooling and/or lighting systems; and lack of instructional space (e.g., classrooms). High values indicate a low quality of physical infrastructure.

Computer availability for students: This index is the ratio of the principals' report on the number of computers in the school available to 15-year-olds and the number of 15-year-olds in the school represented by the sample.

Teacher specialisation: This index was computed from 3 variables describing the percentage of teachers in reading, mathematics, and science, respectively, teaching in their area of specialisation.

School autonomy: This index was derived from principals' reports on whether or not various aspects of school management (hiring and firing teachers, determining initial and incremental salaries, formulating school budget, determining student disciplinary and assessment policy, approving student admittance, choosing textbooks and course content, and deciding which course are offered) were a school responsibility.

Teacher participation in decision making: This index was derived from principals' reports on whether or not teachers have the main responsibility, within their school, for the aspects of school management described above for school autonomy.

(Community) Aggregate parental occupational status: This variable was derived as the average of the highest parental occupational status (ISEI) reported by all students in a school. The variable was then used as a characteristic for each student in the school as a proxy for the occupational status of adults in the community.

III. What is a rural school?

There are a variety of ways to define rural using the Census geographic information on the location of schools. There is no single recommended definition. Rather, the choice of how to define rural depends on the nature of the analysis carried out. For this analysis, a variety of Statistics Canada standard geographic variables were explored in determining what should be considered a rural school for the purposes of this analysis in addition to information provided in the PISA school questionnaires. In this report, rural schools are defined as those schools located outside large urban centres (CMA or CA). That is, in terms of Statistics Canada definitions, rural schools are those in Rural and Small Towns (RST).

Census rural area: The most commonly used definition, Census urban area, refers to communities of at least 1000 people, and a population density of at least 400 per square kilometre. Census rural refers to communities that do not meet this criterion.

Census Metropolitan Area (CMA) and Census Agglomeration (CA):
These are urban cores, together with adjacent rural and urban areas that have a high degree of economic and social integration with that urban area. A CMA is the area around an urban core with a population of at least 100,000. A CA surrounds an urban core of at least 10,000. In CMAs and CAs, land is designated as being part of an urban core, urban fringe or rural fringe. Certain rules with respect to population and density are used to make the urban designations. Outside CMAs and CAs, land is also designated as urban area (census urban) using the same rules. Area not designated urban is considered rural (census rural).

Rural and small town (RST): This definition refers to populations living outside the commuting zone of larger urban centres (outside of CMAs and CAs.)

Rural postal codes: Areas serviced by rural route delivery from a post office or postal station. These areas are identified by the use of a 0 in the second position of the postal code.

In addition to these Statistics Canada, geographic concepts, information on community size was collected in the PISA school questionnaire. Principals were asked about the size of the community in which the school was located based on population size: village or rural area, small town, town, city (of 100,000 to about 1 million), close to a city of over 1 million, in a city of over 1 million. It should be noted that the population size of a community does not necessarily provide information about the rural or urban nature of that community in terms of access to and integration with an urban centre. A comparison of this variable with the CMA/CA definition used in this analysis shows that 32% of students in schools identified by principals as being in villages or small towns, were in fact in schools located within Census Metropolitan Areas or Census Agglomerations.

Number of 15-year olds by location of school using definition based on Rural and Small town (non-CMA/CA) compared to community size collected in PISA questionnaire
PISA principal questionnaire	CMA/CA (urban)	RST (rural)	Total
Village (less than 3,000)	6,522	26,673	33,195
Small town (3,000 to 15,000)	27,711	47,552	75,263
Town (15,000 to 100,000)	90,971	674	91,645
City (100,000 to 1,000,000)	100,587	0	100,587
City (more than 1,000,000) city centre	23,335	0	23,335
City (more than 1,000,000) elsewhere	17,324	0	17,324
Total	266,450	74,899	341,349

Contents

Understanding the rural - urban reading gap - November 2002

Appendix B: Definitions and Concepts