Understanding the Early Years - Results of the Community Mapping Study in North York - May 2001

5. Neighbourhood Resources

Previous

Contents

Next

This chapter considers the distribution of resources in the neighbourhoods of North York and discusses the implications of these findings.

Theories based on neighbourhood resources view the community itself as a resource for human development. Resources in the neighbourhood support families and residents by complementing their efforts to raise their children well. By investigating the links between the quality and quantity of services available for children (such as police, parks, recreation, and health and social services) with the developmental outcomes of children (such as emotional and cognitive development), communities can evaluate the effectiveness of these resources and determine how best to distribute them.

Such theories imply that increased - as well as appropriate - availability of programs and services will lead to enrichment of experiences, more opportunities for development and social networks of support, and fewer chances of developing problems. Scarcity of resources, on the contrary, can result in reduced opportunities for enrichment, lack of supportive environments, and higher need for preventive and corrective action. The provision of services can be expensive and labour intensive, therefore it is essential to have the best mix and right coverage of services based on their impacts on families and children (See Jencks & Mayer, 1990, for a review of the theories of neighbourhood influence.)

A look at neighbourhood resources

How were services distributed in North York?

Why ask this question?

A community can help serve its residents by offering a range of programs and services to meet the needs of children. Programs can serve a variety of purposes. For example, they can be:

• recreational (e.g., community sports teams);
• educational experiences (e.g.,nursery schools); and
• an intervention when problems occur.

These programs may offer opportunities to increase one's quality of life through a learning or recreational experience, while at the same time increasing social networks through participation.

Five program categories that are important for child development outcomes were examined.

1. Education;
2. Societal (e.g., programs for special needs children);
3. Health services;
4. Sports and recreation;
5. Entertainment and culture.

Community researchers in North York first created an inventory of programs,⁴ then contacted a sample of agencies offering programs throughout the city to collect information about: the types of services they offered; the intended recipients; barriers to participation; and areas of concern. (Refer to Appendix F for a detailed description of the design and results of the community program survey). The maps created for this chapter of the report are based on the inventory of programs and services that was developed. Resources were mapped according to their classification by the community's researchers.

Educational resources

Three potential types of educational resources can support children's development. They are:

• resources targeted directly to children (such as Early Childhood Educational Programs (ECEP) and kindergartens);
• resources targeted to parents or families (such as parenting programs, parent relief programs or family support programs); and
• community-based resources available to all residents (such as libraries, literacy centres, and English as a Second Language (ESL) programs).

A child's readiness to learn at entry to formal schooling is an important indicator of his or her future academic and social success, which in turn can influence his or her life-long prospects for employment and financial security. Educational programs for young children that enhance their physical, social, emotional and cognitive development help provide the foundation for later learning.⁵

Early-childhood educational programs and kindergartens

For some children, attendance at ECEP may be their first exposure to a structured learning environment. For the purpose of this report, ECEP are defined as learning-focused play centres that offer children, sometimes with their parents, the opportunity for play-based learning. These programs vary in their fee policies (some programs charge fees; some fee-based programs are subsidized; and some programs operate as cooperatives, where fees are reduced or eliminated as a result of parental volunteering). Examples include nursery schools, pre-schools, and early learning centres.

Kindergarten programs in Ontario, providing children with their first experience in the school system, offer a variety of learning activities in a structured environment. The province of Ontario offers both junior and senior kindergarten and a child can enter the kindergarten program at age four. The program typically operates during 50% of the school week.

Participation in learning-based pre-school programs can lead to achievement gains and, in some cases, gains in self-esteem, motivation and social behaviour (Westchester Institute For Human Services, 2000). Kindergarten programs also have the potential to increase a child's readiness for learning, thereby enhancing his or her lifelong academic and personal development. However, in order for these programs to be effective in helping children achieve their optimal potential, they need to be developmentally appropriate and responsive to the experiences, backgrounds and needs of the students (Doherty, 1997).

Map 17 - In which areas did children and families have the greatest access to early childhood educational resources?

• Approximately 52 ECEP were found in North York, located almost exclusively in the eastern portion of the city. These same neighbourhoods contained a lower density of children than in other portions of the city and tended to be areas where residents with higher incomes and education levels lived. Fewer ECEP were found on the westernmost portion of the city; the area of the city where the density of children was much higher, and the levels of income and education were lower. Many of the ECEP were located in neighbourhoods with less than five risk characteristics.
• Approximately 90 kindergartens were located in North York, primarily clustered around neighbourhoods with a high density of children in the western and eastern portions of the city.

Because kindergarten is part of the public school system in Ontario, the availability of this resource is directly related to the need, based on the number of children in an area. Therefore, the availability and location of kindergartens in North York showed a distinctively different pattern than the availability and location of ECEP. For example, kindergartens were found in neighbourhoods with a variety of characteristics, such as areas with both:

• high and low income levels of residents;
• high and low levels of education of residents; and
• the presence of few or many risk characteristics.

Parent and family focused educational resources

Resources that support families can include:

• family support centres (including family resource centres, support groups for teen mothers, and mothers' networking groups);
• parent relief programs (provides a safe place for parents to drop off their children for a few hours). One of the programs offering this service is the Better Beginnings Program; and
• parenting classes and programs (including parenting programs for parents of young children, mom and tot programs, and parenting programs focusing on all stages of child development).

Positive parenting practices have been related to increased pro-social behaviours in children and a decreased likelihood of behavioural problems (Chao and Willms, 1998). The literature also suggests that parenting and life skills training for adults can serve as a protective factor to decrease a child's risk for problems (Harachi, Catalano, and Hawkins, 1997).

Map 18 - Which areas had the greatest access to parenting programs and family resources?

• North York had 17 family support centres, 5 parent relief programs, and 45 parenting classes and programs:
• The family support centres were distributed in three main locations in the community; the west; the north; and the centre. The family support centres in the west and the north were mostly in areas of five or more risk factors. The proportion of recent immigrants in the areas of the northern family support centres was also high.

While parent or family relief programs were located in proximity to neighbourhoods with five or more risk factors, there were none in the western portion of the community that included far more high-risk areas (five or more risk factors).

• The eastern, western, and southern borders did not have family support centres.
• Four out of the five parent relief programs were located in the northeastern portion of the city, and the fifth parent relief program was located in the southeastern portion of the city.
• The parenting programs and classes were equally distributed throughout North York serving areas with a wide range of socio-demographic characteristics and risk factors.

Community-focused educational resources

Research suggests that children growing up in families where the parents have low literacy skills are more likely to have problems in reading as well as in mathematics. When low literacy skills are coupled with other indicators of disadvantage such as lower parental educational attainment, and lower family income, the negative relationship with child outcomes is even stronger (National Institute of Adult Education: Adult Literacy and Basic Skills Unit, 1993). Studies have also shown positive gains for adults who participate in literacy programs (e.g., further education, higher income, employment gains, and increased interest in their child's schooling (Beder, 1999).

Map 19 - Which areas had the greatest access to libraries, literacy and ESL programs?

North York had 19 libraries and 25 literacy programs.

• Libraries and literacy programs were often clustered on both the eastern and the western margins of the city.
• Libraries were found in areas where the density of children was high, and in areas with high and low levels of risk factors.
• Literacy programs were often located in relative proximity to a library.
• The literacy programs located in the western part of the community were most often found in areas with high numbers of risk factors (five or more risk factors), in contrast to the literacy programs in the eastern portion of the city, which were often found in lower risk areas.

Societal resources

Services for children at risk and children with special needs

Many children may experience multiple risk factors in their lives such as low income status, negative parenting practices, parental separation, or abuse. These children may grow up to experience problems such as poor health, emotional or behavioural problems, and difficulties in learning. In order to enhance children's capacity for successful development, accessible and effective programs and services need to be available for children and their families living in high-risk circumstances.

Map 20 - Where were programs for children at risk and children with special needs located?

• 22 different services and programs were available for children at risk and their families, such as Better Beginnings Now, Community Action Program for Children (CAPC) and Head Start.
  • 12 of these programs were clustered in the northeastern region of North York near a relatively poor area of the community with somewhat high child density.
  • In the westernmost side of North York as well as in the southeast corner of the city - areas of high-risk characteristics and a high density of children - there were few of these resources for children.
• 35 resources for children with special needs were present in North York. These programs included speech and language therapy, hearing clinics and programs for children with learning disabilities.
  • These resources were often located near hospitals or health clinics that were often located further away from areas with a high density of children.
  • A lack of these resources was noted in high-risk areas where the population could face challenges associated with poverty.

Social housing

Access to affordable, safe and quality housing is one of the most fundamental needs common to all Canadians. At the same time, many families face difficulties in finding such housing, especially when they spend an increasing proportion of their income on shelter. Guidelines set out by the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation note that a family has experienced a housing affordability problem when one-third or more of their household income is spent on shelter costs. In 1996, approximately 30% of all Canadian families renting their home spent one-third or more of their income on housing, with this burden falling heaviest upon young families and those headed by lone-parents (Canadian Council on Social Development, 1998). This trend has increased over the past decade, particularly among lone-parents.

With one-third of renting families in Canada over-burdened with shelter costs, the availability of community social housing is key to addressing the fundamental need of families for affordable, safe and quality housing.

Map 21 - Where were social housing units located in North York?

In North York there were approximately 82 social housing developments, containing nearly 15,500 units. The largest provider of social housing was the Metro Toronto Housing Authority, providing close to half of all units in the community. Other groups that provided housing assistance included ethnic or cultural affiliated groups, municipalities, and cooperative not-for-profit organizations.

• The neighbourhoods in which social housing developments were located included a wide range of social characteristics:
  • A greater proportion of people living in EAs containing social housing units had low incomes, as compared with North York overall (35% as compared to 26%, respectively).
  • Generally, social housing units were located in neighbourhoods with high numbers of potential risk factors (often five or more).
  • Approximately 7,000 children (13%) aged six years and under either lived in neighbourhoods with social housing developments, or within social housing developments.

Multicultural resources

As previously noted, one of the principal distinguishing characteristics of North York, making it unique among Canadian communities - was its degree of ethnic and cultural diversity.

• Compared to the Canadian population, where 17% were immigrants, 51% of the population in North York was of immigrant origin.

Map 22 - Did people in high-immigrant areas have access to multicultural and immigrant services?

While diversity provides excellent opportunities for cultural learning and growth, it can also create new and greater challenges than those faced by other, more homogeneous communities. An effective strategy to address these challenges includes providing an adequate and accessible service network for immigrant families and their children.

• North York had 38 locations where multicultural and immigrant services were available. These services, located in areas with diverse ethnic populations, included such programs as ESL, citizenship classes, and women's groups.
• Of the 38 services, 20 of them were located in EAs with an immigrant population of over 50% of the total.

Over half of the 795 EAs in North York had 50% or more residents who were immigrants. Two-thirds of children aged six and under in North York lived in such ethnically diverse EAs.

Community centres for the benefit of all residents

Community services, such as community centres, are beneficial to all residents, including new Canadians. Programs based in community centres provide an important opportunity for children to learn social and other skills through interaction with their peers, through instruction or mentoring by adults. Almost two-thirds of all children and 80% of low income children rarely participate in clubs or group programs such as those offered at community centres (Ross and Roberts, 2000). Barriers to accessing community centres, such as cost and transportation, may be responsible for their lower rates of use.

Map 23 - Where were community, recreation and neighbourhood centres located?

North York had a network of close to 33 community centres for the use and benefit of its 589,653 residents.

• While the number of community centres in North York was relatively high, these centres were not always located in areas with large numbers of families and children.
  • 24 of the 33 community centres were located in EAs with fewer than 100 children, leaving only 9 centres in those EAs with more children.
  • Most centres, however, were located near areas with high numbers of children.
  • Exceptions were found in the south-central region and southwest corner of the community, where community centres were not located in or in adjoining areas with high numbers of children.

Health services

Doctors and specialist physicians

Are there relationships among the distribution of physicians and the characteristics of a community? A recent study (Krishnan, 1997) found that the distribution of physicians and specialists depended on certain socio-demographic factors within communities.

• Family physicians or general practitioners were most likely to be found in metropolitan areas with a high percentage of residents who were highly educated.
• Family physicians or general practitioners were less likely to be located in areas with a high proportion of the population under age five.
• Specialist physicians were more likely to be found in large population areas with a higher percentage of university-educated residents and were more likely to be found in areas with a lower percentage of children and of owner-occupied dwellings (Krishnan, 1997).

Map 24 - In which areas did residents have the greatest access to doctors?

• In North York, the physicians tended to be concentrated in and around areas with fewer risk factors (particularly in the central portion of the community).
• Although the concentration of health practitioners was more dense in the eastern and central areas of the community — both in areas where the density of children was high and low — no neighbourhood appeared to be at a great disadvantage in terms of physician accessibility. Almost everyone in North York had some type of physician available within a two-kilometre radius.

Emergency health services — hospitals and ambulance stations

Does the number of hospitals or ambulances in the community have an impact on the health of its residents? More research is needed to help determine the impact of the distribution of health care services in the community on utilization rates and overall population health.

Map 25 - Where were emergency health services located in North York?

• The concentration of hospitals was higher on the eastern side of North York than elsewhere, parallel to the distribution pattern of physicians.
• Seven out of the eight ambulance stations were located in the northern region of the city, with most of them on the eastern side.
  • Despite the presence of several hospitals, the southeastern area of North York — where there were pockets of high-density neighbourhoods - had no ambulance station in close proximity (there could be stations located in areas adjoining North York).
  • There was no hospital in the southwestern area of the community but there was an ambulance station.
  • The neighbourhoods containing hospitals and ambulance stations seemed to include a range of socio-economic characteristics.

Overall, acute care services in North York did not appear to be as evenly distributed as primary physicians.

Nutrition and health promotion programs, counselling programs or centres

Nutrition and health promotion programs

The pre-school years represent an important stage of development for children. Thus, issues of food security, adequate nutrition and hunger are of great consequence for children in the pre-school age range (Hay, 2000).

Past research has shown that nutrition programs have improved outcomes for children. Implementation of prenatal nutritional counselling, motivation training and food supplement program called the Montreal Diet Dispensary for high-risk pregnant women has "resulted in significant increases in mean birth weights compared with high-risk women not enrolled" (Steinhauer, 1998). As well, Vancouver's Healthiest Babies Possible, an outreach program which targets women at risk of having low-birth weight babies has seen positive results. Participation in the program resulted in behavioural changes among the mothers (i.e., quitting smoking) and higher birth weights for the infants. The program was multifaceted and addressed issues such as nutrition and lifestyle choice, and provided access and referrals to group support meetings, health and other agencies (National Council of Welfare, 1997).

Counselling programs or centres

Counselling and mental health services can be beneficial to all members of the community as preventive and corrective measures. A recent study in the U.S., for instance, found that the availability of community-based services has been associated with decreased rates of hospitalization services for children with emotional disturbances (McNulty, Evans, and Grosser, 1996).

Map 26 - In which areas were preventive health services located?

59 nutrition and health promotion programs were found in North York.

• Nutrition and health promotion programs were located on both the east and west sides of the city. The southeast portion of the city had fewer of these resources than any other region of the city. In the west, these programs were located in both its northern and southern areas. On the east side of the community, these programs were mainly located in its northern areas.
• In general, the nutrition and health promotion programs were found in areas with at least three or four risk characteristics, and were highly concentrated in areas with even higher numbers of risk factors.

Counselling services in North York were comprised of a diverse group of providers, including ethnic or religious groups, and municipal or other community-service agencies. These organizations provided individual and family counselling, as well as treatment and intervention programs in neighbourhoods throughout the community.

• Counselling programs were located in both the western and northeastern portions of the city.
• Counselling programs in the west were most often located in neighbourhoods with at least five risk characteristics.

Sports and recreational facilities, parks and playgrounds

Ensuring that recreational opportunities are available and affordable is important to a growing child's physical and emotional health, psychosocial skills and improved self-esteem (CCSD, 1998). Children's participation in supervised and unsupervised sports and artsoriented activities is associated with increased psychosocial development. The presence of good parks and play spaces in children's neighbourhoods has been linked to increased participation rates in supervised and unsupervised sports and arts activities. Children living in more civic neighbourhoods (characterized by factors such as helpful neighbours, safe environments, and the presence of good role models) were more likely to have participated in sports-related activities (Offord, Lipman, & Duku, 1998). As well, a recent study on involvement in sports found that active parents tend to have active children and that families with higher incomes were more likely to have children involved in sports as compared to families with lower incomes (Kremarik, 2000).

Not only is the presence of an outdoor play space important, but the kind and amount of vegetation in the play area (often measured by the number of trees and amount of green space or grass) also makes a difference. Studies have found that adults are more likely to use, and children are more likely to play in, areas of higher vegetation. Nearly twice as many children were observed playing in areas with many trees than were observed in areas with few trees (Coley, Kuo, & Sullivan, 1997; Taylor, Wiley, Kuo, & Sullivan, 1998); and more creative forms of play occur in areas with greater vegetation (Taylor, Wiley, Kuo, & Sullivan, 1998).

Map 27 - Where were sports and recreation facilities, parks and playgrounds located?

• Sports facilities seemed to be relatively well distributed in North York, except on the western border of the city and in various pockets in the northeast.
• Although the neighbourhoods along the western border, which had high densities of children, lacked formal sports and recreational facilities, they did have access to green space.

Entertainment and cultural resources

Participation in the arts exposes children to history and culture through a wide range of experiences, and has been positively associated with the presence of good parks, playgrounds and play spaces within a neighbourhood. Dr. Graham Chance, past chair of the Canadian Institute of Child Health, advocated that enrichment in music, the arts and recreation are vital to the development of the emotional and spiritual well-being of children (Campbell, 2000).

Factors that can be linked to increased participation in extra-curricular arts and cultural activities include both family characteristics, such as income level, and community characteristics (such as the availability of resources). Research demonstrates that children from lower income families participate far less — in fact 26% less — than their higher income counterparts. Children from higher income families have higher participation rates, perhaps because of the cost of equipment, lessons, and the programs themselves (Ross and Roberts, 2000). This discrepancy among income groups in children's participation rates in the arts shows a missed opportunity to improve developmental outcomes.

The majority of entertainment and cultural facilities tended to be located in neighbourhoods with the fewest number of children (each with a child population between 5 and 59). These neighbourhoods also had residents with higher levels of income and education.

Arts and cultural facilities

Map 28 - Where were arts and cultural facilities located?

There were approximately 17 galleries, museums, or cultural centres and 15 theatres and performance spaces in North York, located almost exclusively in the eastern part of the city. The remainder of the entertainment and cultural resources were located on the northwestern side, bordering on an industrial portion of the city.

• There was one large central cluster of resources; use of these by the full community, however, would likely depend on both availability of transportation and costs.

Children who participated in the arts were about 30% less likely to have one or more of the following problems: impaired social relationships, grade repetition, emotional or behavioural disorders.⁶

Putting it all together: Creating a Resource Availability Index

According to theories of neighbourhood resources, increased availability of key resources for children and families create a more positive, enriched environment for child development. An enriched environment, with greater opportunities for learning and development, can lead to better overall child outcomes. In addition to viewing these key community resources individually, it is helpful to look at the distribution of multiple services, enabling a more global picture of resource availability in the community. To measure multiple resource availability, and to help differentiate high-resource areas from low-resource areas, a "Resource Availability Index" was created. This index uses Census Tract Boundaries rather than EAs to define the geographic areas (refer to Appendix G for more information on the development of this index).

Map 29 - What was the overall resource availability in North York?

• Of the 111 Census Tracts in North York, 55 of them were classified as "somewhat high resource areas" or "high resource areas." These 55 Census Tracts contained nearly half of all North York children aged six years and younger.
• While many children lived in relatively high-resource areas, about 26,700 (over 50% of children aged six and younger) lived in one of the 56 relatively resource-poor Census Tracts in North York. These 56 Census Tracts contained less than half of the 19 key resources identified in the Resource Availability Index.
• Clusters of high-resource Census Tracts were disproportionately represented in the eastern region of North York, a region with relatively few children. This pattern points out an apparent discrepancy between the distribution of resources in North York and the location of families with young children who might need them.
• Other areas with relatively few resources were scattered throughout the community. These areas were often located adjacent to Census Tracts with abundant resources, ensuring a fair degree of accessibility even with a less-than-ideal distribution of key community resources.

How can the community use this information?

• While North York has a good supply of services for its residents, improvements could be achieved by better distribution, a best mix of services to respond to the specific character of neighbourhoods, and targeting of remedial or compensatory services.
• Efficiencies can be gained by matching demand and rates of utilization to supply of services, but will require ongoing monitoring.
• Sports/recreation, culture and arts, as well as contingency services could be improved in some areas, where high numbers of children aged six and younger live. Such improvements may require action by several organizations and agencies.

• ⁴ This inventory represents a first step by the community to understand the resources it has available. The database should be updated on a regular basis to ensure its completeness.
• ⁵ Doherty, 1997
• ⁶ Offord, Lipman, and Duku (1998).

Previous

Contents

Next