2. Chapter 2. Current Utilization of Coproducts and Near Coproducts of Ethanol Fermentation from Grain

• 1. Current status of coproduct utilization in north america
  • 1.1 Introduction
  • 1.2 Canadian Ethanol Plants
  • 1.3 American Ethanol Plants
• 2. Potential value-added opportunities for ethanol products
  • 2.1 Introduction
  • 2.2 Cereal components with value-added use and/or potential
    • 2.2.1 Protein Products and Derivatives  
    • 2.2.2 Fibre and fibre derivatives
    • 2.2.3 Vitamins
    • 2.2.4 Fats, oils and lipids
    • 2.2.5 Quaternary Ammonium Compound
    • 2.2.6 Pigments
    • 2.2.7 Enzymes
    • 2.2.8 Phytate and  phytate derivatives
    • 2.2.9 Organic acids
    • 2.2.10 Extracts
    • 2.2.11 Ethanol
    • 2.2.12 Polymers
    • 2.2.13 Calcium magnesium acetate
    • 2.2.14 Xylitol
    • 2.2.15 Aquaculture feed products
    • 2.2.16 Cinnamic acid
    • 2.2.17 Alternan
    • 2.2.18 Diethylamine
    • 2.2.19 Piperidine
• 3. List of references

1. CURRENT STATUS OF COPRODUCT UTILIZATION IN NORTH AMERICA

1.1 Introduction

At present, the coproducts produced by most ethanol plants in North America are used in the animal feed industry. These include distillers' dried grains (DDG), distillers' dried grains with solubles (DDGS), distillers' dried solubles (DDS), wet distillers' grains and other types of animal feed ingredients. Some of the larger plants in the U.S. are producing a wider variety of materials including wheat gluten, corn gluten, corn germ, corn oil, carbon dioxide (CO2) and food-grade yeast. Many, though not all, fuel ethanol firms are interested in pursuing value-added potential for their byproducts. Some are actively engaged in research while others are considering what steps to take in order to become involved in this area.

Wherever possible current research interests of particular ethanol firms are noted in this present report. A number of companies were willing to give information concerning feedstocks and coproducts, but would not discuss research efforts. The information presented here came from a number of sources including direct contact with producers and in published material: Powers (1995), Mulligan (1994), ICAST (1994), Monenco AGRA (1993), the New Uses Council (USA) and the American Renewable Fuels Association.

1.2 Canadian Ethanol Plants

1.2.1 Plants in Operation

Commercial Alcohols Inc. uses corn to produce ethanol at its Tiverton, Ontario plant. Distillers' wet grains, produced as a byproduct of the process, are sold for animal feed. Commercial Alcohols has planned an expansion project at Chatham, Ontario. Groundbreaking was projected for the spring of 1996, but may be delayed until mid-1997 because of financial considerations. At their current site, Commercial Alcohols has considered extracting CO2 for sale to a local greenhouse operation, but this project has not come to fruition. CO2 extraction is also being considered at the Chatham plant.

Mohawk Oil Co. Ltd. currently sells its wheat-to-ethanol fermentation byproducts for animal feed. However, they will soon be producing a food-grade coproduct called Fibrotein at their Minnedosa, Manitoba plant. It has taken three years to obtain the Canadian rights to the product, to do market research and to gain regulatory approval. An official announcement is due imminently (Don O'Connor, personal communication).

Pound-Maker Agventures Ltd. of Lanigan, Saskatchewan uses all byproducts on-site for cattle feed. They have just finished an expansion project that allows handling of 24,000 head in their feedlot (Saskatoon Star-Phoenix, 1994). Pound-Maker has also considered use of its waste heat in greenhouse operations. They are extremely interested in finding higher value uses for their byproducts in order to increase profitability (John McEachran, personal communication).

1.2.2 Plants under Development

Agri-Partners International is developing a wheat biorefinery in Red Deer, Alberta in conjunction with TDI Projects Inc. (Earl St. Denis, personal communication). This plant will produce ethanol, as well as a number of other wheat-based products.

Metalore Resources Ltd., presently involved in the natural gas industry, has planned a $40 million ethanol/food processing plant in Walsh, Ontario (George Chilian, personal communication). Their major feedstock will be hard red winter wheat that they will preprocess for fibre, gluten and germ removal before fermentation to ethanol. Other planned coproducts include fusil oil, CO2 and distillers' grains. Value-added opportunities for the distillers' grains are being investigated. Metalore hopes to begin construction in the summer of 1996 with production beginning early to mid-1997.

Seaway Valley Farmers' Energy Co-operative was formed by 15 farmers in 1992 (Bud Atkins, personal communication). They are planning a 50 million litre plant in Cornwall, Ontario with start of construction slated for the spring of 1996. Corn will be used as the major feedstock, but hulless oats, wheat and barley are also being considered. They will produce half of their ethanol for fuel and the other half for industrial and food usage. Initial coproducts will include DDGS and CO2, but accommodation is being made in construction of the plant to allow for other value-added product streams. Seaway Valley's plant will be environmentally friendly, utilizing all components of the feedstock and generating no waste.

1.3 American Ethanol Plants

According to the American Renewable Fuels Association, there are 44 ethanol producers in the United States with plant capacities ranging from 750 million gallons per year (MGY) to 0.5 MGY. As of January 1996, the top four producers were Archer Daniels Midland Corn Processing (750 MGY), Minnesota Corn Processors (120 MGY), Cargill (105 MGY) and Pekin Energy Company (100 MGY). A number of the American ethanol plants are listed below. They are arranged alphabetically under type of feedstock and/or process.

2. POTENTIAL VALUE-ADDED OPPORTUNITIES FOR ETHANOL COPRODUCTS

2.1 Introduction

A number of cereal derivatives have been identified that are currently used in cosmetics, food and other industries. In some cases, the specific chemicals present in wheat, oats, barley or corn could replace synthetic compounds already in use in the market place. The limiting factors include low concentrations, development of economical extraction techniques, cost-competitiveness with compounds already being used, market volumes and production-to-market mechanisms (Christensen, 1994). So far, interest has weighed more heavily on the government/producer end of the equation than on the market place end.

Tables listing concentrations of the chemical components of wheat, oats, corn and barley can be found in the Food Composition and Nutrition Tables (1989/1990). In addition to the major components such as starch, protein and fat, minor components including amino acids, tocopherols, tocotrienols and vitamins are recorded.

Le Jardin de l'Aigle Reg. (1994) surveyed the potential coproducts from nineteen species of crop plants, including barley, oats and durum wheat, for Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. The majority of their information came from two American databanks: Natural Products Alert (NapralertTM) generated by the College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois, and the Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Beltsville, Maryland. In their report they listed all of the known compounds found in these crops based on the scientific literature. Where possible, they linked these chemicals to their present use in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, foods and other industries. In summary, Le Jardin de l'Aigle identified fourteen minor components found in oats and/or barley and evaluated them for coproduct potential. Some components are also found in wheat and corn. The list included amino acids (alanine, arginine, glycine, glutamine and tyrosine), vitamins (vitamin B1, vitamin B2, pantothenic acid, niacin, vitamin E (-tocopherol) and folic acid), as well as a number of other materials including ß-carotene, diethylamine and piperidine. These compounds will be discussed in more detail in the following section. However, Le Jardin de l'Aigle concluded that the potential for commercial development of these compounds as coproducts from fuel ethanol production was small.

Murray and co-workers (1987) reviewed the minor components that can be found in a number of agricultural resources including wheat, oats, corn and barley. Since the completion of their study, Dr. Murray has had over 1000 requests for copies of the report (Don Murray, personal communication). While there has been a significant amount of interest in minor component recovery, Dr. Murray indicated that he was not aware of many instances where research had been followed through to commercialization.

An extensive review of the cereal processing industry was done by Tam McEwen (1995) of Threshold Technologies Company for Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada's Winnipeg Policy Branch. McEwen discussed a number of products that can be derived from the fractionation of several grains including oats, wheat, and barley. The report emphasized the need for collaborative activity between industry and researchers, and identified a number of cereal fractionation opportunities. At present, there are no wheat preprocessing facilities operating commercially in Canada. While preprocessing technology has not been developed specifically for fuel ethanol production, it could easily be added to an ethanol plant.

The cosmetics and toiletries industry alone comprises a $60 billion market worldwide and uses approximately 4,000 different additives (Flick, 1991). A number of cereal derivatives are already being produced commercially and used in cosmetic formulations by many companies including Active Organics, Eastman, Laboratoires Sérobiologiques, McIntyre, R.I.T.A, Roche, and Universal Preserv-A-Chem, (Ash and Ash, 1994). Opportunities are enhanced by the recent development of the "green" cosmetics market, as consumers search for environmentally friendly bio-products. The cosmetics and toiletries industry uses many types of raw materials including emulsifiers, emollients, preservatives, binders, stabilizers, wetting agents, dispersants, foaming agents, pearlizers, gelling/stiffening agents, surfactants, and viscosity builders (Flick, 1991), categories where cereal-derived compounds can often play a role.

2.2 Cereal Components with Value-Added Use and/or Potential

2.2.1 Protein Products and Derivatives

Protein is a major constituent in the small grain cereals. In addition to its nutritional value, it has application in the cosmetics and toiletries industry.

2.2.1.1 Wheat

Wheat gluten consists of a number of proteins, particularly gliadin and glutenin. The gluten is used in cosmetic powders and creams as a base (Winter, 1994). In the food industry, wheat gluten is used as a dough conditioner, formulation and processing aid, nutritional supplement, stabilizer, surface-finishing agent, texturizing agent and thickener (Lewis, 1989). The International Wheat Gluten Organization describes the use of gluten in a number of products including baked goods, breakfast cereals, meat, fish and poultry products, pasta, pizza, snack foods, tortillas, batter mixes and coatings, pet foods, aquaculture feeds, chewing gum, beverages, biodegradable surfactants and pressure-sensitive adhesive tapes.

Wheat germ protein is used in shampoos and emollients (Winter, 1994). Wheat amino acids are sold under the trade name HydrotriticumTM WAA (Ash and Ash, 1994).

Lectins are carbohydrate binding proteins found in wheat germ. They have a broad range of medical and biochemical uses based on their capacity to bind erythrocytes (Murray et al., 1987). Lectins can be bound to other molecules such as biotin or peroxidase to increase their value. One lectin, agglutinin, can be extracted by affinity chromatography and is sold by a number of biochemical companies for as much as $1700 U.S. per gram.

2.2.1.2 Corn

Zein, a protein extracted from corn gluten with an alcohol, is used as a fat mimetic, a glaze and a surface finishing agent for foods and pharmaceuticals (Cook and Shulman, 1994; Lewis, 1989; Wilson, 1987). It is also used in face masks and nail polishes as a plasticizer (Winter, 1994).

Zein can be used to make textile fibres, plastics, printing inks, varnishes and other coatings and adhesives. Aqueous ultrapurified zein (UPZ) latex formulations can be prepared and have a variety of uses in foods and pharmaceuticals in instances where flammable organic solvents are not desirable (Cook and Shulman, 1994).

Corn gluten amino acids are found in the commercial product Amino Gluten MG, while corn gluten proteins are found in Press-AidTMXF and Press-AidTM (Ash and Ash, 1994). Corn-ProTM35 is a hydrolysed corn protein produced by Brooks Industries for use in the cosmetics industry in skin and hair care products.

2.2.1.3 Oats

Different oat plant derivatives have been used in cosmetic and toiletry products because of their gluten content and resultant effects on dry and itchy skin. Commercial bath products, including soaps and gels as well as powders, are produced. Oat gluten is also used as a stabilizer, emulsifier and food extender (The Lawrence Review of Natural Products, 1991). Oat protein is marketed by one company under the trade name MicroatTM (Ash and Ash, 1994).

Another company, Canamino Inc., produces Hydrolysed Oat Protein HOPA for use in shampoos, conditioners, lotions, creams and gels. It has advantages over other plant proteins and because of its amino acid balance, can also replace animal proteins. On skin and hair Canamino's product provides a thin protective layer that retains moisture and provides shine.

2.2.1.4 Amino Acids

The protein components of different small grain cereals contain characteristic amounts of various amino acids. Some of these components have known usage in cosmetics, foods, pharmaceuticals and other industries. Whether or not it would prove profitable to extract and market amino acids as coproducts of ethanol production is not known.

Alanine -- Alanine has been identified in oats, corn and wheat. L-alanine is utilized in the pharmaceutical industry, in herbicides and as a moisturizer in cosmetics (Ash and Ash, 1994).

Arginine -- Arginine is an essential amino acid found in wheat, oats, corn and barley. It is used in various cosmetics (Ash and Ash, 1994).

Glutamic acid -- Glutamic acid, classified as a non-essential amino acid, has been isolated from barley, corn, wheat and oats. It is used as a food flavouring enhancer and in medical and biochemical research (Ash and Ash, 1994). The market for glutamic acid in the form of monosodium glutamate is large and is presently supplied by hydrolysis of plant proteins including wheat and corn gluten and by fermentation of suitable carbohydrates (Merck Index, 1976).

Glycine -- Glycine has been identified in oats, corn and wheat (Food Composition and Nutrition Tables, 1989/1990). It is a non-essential amino acid with applications in food, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, plastics and paints. Glycine is normally manufactured from gelatin or silk fibroin (Merck Index, 1976).

Tyrosine -- Tyrosine has been found in barley, wheat, corn and oats (Food Composition and Nutrition Tables, 1989/1990). It is used as a nutritive additive (Ash and Ash, 1994).

2.2.2 Fibre and Fibre Derivatives

Small grain cereals contain significant quantities of soluble and insoluble fibre. Both types of fibre have been linked to specific health promoting effects (see Chapter 1, Sections 1.3.4, 2.4.2, 4.4.6.1 and 5.4.2 for more detail).

Wheat bran, oat bran and corn bran are all familiar products in baked goods and breakfast cereals. In an ethanol plant or biorefinery, the bran fraction represents an important coproduct stream. Further refining can yield even more value-added opportunities in the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries.

2.2.2.1 Oats

Williamson Fifer Products Ltd. of Louisville, Kentucky produces a 98% oat fibre product for use in bread, diet breakfast and nutritional beverages, yoghurt, soups, gravies, sauces and diet food supplements (LaBell, 1992). The product has a high water absorption capacity that makes it useful for simultaneously increasing fibre and decreasing calorie content.

Alko Foods Division produces an oat fibre ingredient that has an enriched content of ß-glucan and up to twice the total dietary fibre of oat bran (LaBell, 1992). It can be used in baked goods, snack foods and breakfast cereals to provide a light moist texture.

Oat gum is used as a thickener and stabilizer in food and cosmetic products, as an antioxidant in butter, creams and candy, and as a thickener and stabilizer in pasteurized cheese spreads and cream cheese (Winter, 1994). The major component of oat gum is ß-glucan, a water-soluble fibre, that has been linked to control of heart disease, diabetes and cancer. Of the small grains, ß-glucan is found in highest concentrations in oats and barley.

Canamino Inc. produces an oat bran product with a high beta-glucan content called OstarTM CI-B14. This product is for use in cosmetic products as an anti-irritant and provides soothing and healing properties. It is an absorbent, moisturizer and film former.

Canamino Inc. also produces an oat beta glucan product called OstarTM Glucan 1A which can replace hyaluronic acid in skin and hair care products, shaving creams, liquid make-up and bath toiletries to provide a thin film allowing for moisture retention.

Quaker Oats Co. and Heller Seasonings & Ingredients, Inc. are jointly developing and marketing a specially processed oat bran product using patented technology developed in conjunction with Webb Technical Group (LaBell, 1992). The product is mixed with very lean meat to produce low fat ground beef or pork sausages.

Another fat replacer, Oatrim, was developed by Dr. George Inglett and co-workers at the Northern Regional Research Centre (USDA) at Peoria, Illinois (LaBell, 1992). The patent for this product has been licensed by Quaker Oats Co., Rhone-Poulenc, Inc. and ConAgra Speciality Grain Products Co. It can be used in frozen desserts, dairy products, salad dressings, baked goods and meat products to reduce fat content while providing a fat-like texture and mouthfeel.

2.2.2.2 Barley

Studies have shown that barley ß-glucan has nutritional and health properties similar to those found for oat ß-glucan. ß-glucan is extracted from barley kernels by Sigma Chemicals (Le Jardin de l'Aigle Reg., 1994).

2.2.3 Vitamins

A number of vitamins are present in the small grain cereals, including vitamin B1, vitamin B2, pantothenic acid, niacin, vitamin E (-tocopherol) and folic acid. Vitamins are utilized as nutritional supplements as well as cosmetics additives (Ash and Ash, 1994; drug facts and comparisons, 1994).

Vitamins B1 and B2 -- Also known as thiamin and riboflavin respectively, vitamins B1 and B2 have been identified in oats, wheat, corn and barley (Food Composition and Nutrition Tables, 1989/1990). Riboflavin, produced synthetically, is used as a nutrient in human and animal diets and as a colourant in cosmetic formulations such as tanning compounds (Ash and Ash, 1994). Thiamin also has cosmetic applications.

Niacin -- Also known as nicotinic acid, niacin is present in wheat, oat, corn and barley kernels. It is used nutritionally and as a rubifacient for cosmetics (Ash and Ash, 1994).

Folic acid -- Folic acid is found in the seeds of corn, wheat, barley and oats (Food Composition and Nutrition Tables, 1989/1990). It acts as a nutritional factor and stimulates production of red and white blood cells (drug facts and comparisons, 1994; Merck Index, 1976).

Pantothenic acid -- Pantothenic acid is one of the B family of vitamins (B5) and occurs widely in the plant kingdom, including the four small grain cereals reviewed in this report (Food Composition and Nutrition Tables, 1989/1990; Merck Index, 1976). It is prepared synthetically for commercial use as a nutritional factor and is also available at a 25% concentration in a natural protein for cosmetics use (Ash and Ash, 1994).

Tocopherols -- (Vitamin E) Tocopherols are produced by the vacuum distillation of edible vegetable oils (Winter, 1994). They are found in wheat germ, oats, corn and barley (TWG Consulting Inc., 1995; Lawrence Review of Natural Products, 1994; LaBell, 1992). Tocopherols are used as antioxidants, emollients and solvents in baby toiletries, deodorants, hair products, essential oils and rendered animal fats. They can be used to prevent "warmed over" flavours in poultry and cooked meats. Tocopherols are also used nutritionally as a dietary supplement in that they protect the fat in body tissue from abnormal breakdown and they aid in the formation of red blood cells, muscle and other tissues. Some research has shown a link with control of heart disease and evidence of aging. Tocopherols are marketed by several companies under a variety of trade names (Ash and Ash, 1994).

2.2.4 Fats, Oils and Lipids

Glycerides -- Glycerides consist of a large class of compounds that are esters of the alcohol glycerine (Winter, 1994). At present they are generally manufactured synthetically. However, they are present in wheat germ as mono-, di-, and tri-glycerides (Ash and Ash, 1994; Murray et al., 1987) and marketed under the trade names Vita-Cos and Wickenol®535. Glycerides are used in cosmetics such as lipsticks, creams, lotions, and pigmented products as texturizers and emollients.

Glycerin (also called glycerol, glycl alcohol) -- Glycerin is an oily fluid produced by adding alkalies to fats and fixed oils (Winter, 1994). It is found in the stillage of wheat (Sosulski and Sosulski, 1994) and corn (Cheryan and Parekh, 1995). Glycerin is generally produced as a byproduct of soap and fatty acid manufacture. It reacts with fatty acids to form monoglycerides that act as emulsifiers and stabilizers (Duxbury, 1991).

Glycerin can be used as a solvent, humectant, plasticizer, emollient or sweetener and has over 1000 uses in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, foods (e.g. baked goods, marshmallows, candy), explosives, textiles, packaging and other industries (Lewis, 1989; Merck Index, 1976). The world market for glycerol is greater than a billion pounds a year.

Glycerin helps to keep creamy products soft by absorbing moisture from the air and makes spreading easier (Winter, 1994). Some of the many cosmetic and toiletry products glycerin is found in include hand creams and lotions, hair spray, liquid facial foundations, skin fresheners, toothpaste, rouge, freckle creams, facial masks, perfumes and mouthwashes.

Glycerin is also used in a range of food products including colourings, flavourings (Winter, 1994), liqueurs and confectionaries (Merck Index, 1976). It acts as a heat transfer medium for frozen foods, a crystallization preventor in frozen eggs and yolks, a humectant in dry fruit and an agent for smoothness and body development in chocolate syrups and distilled liquors (Duxbury, 1991). It also may be included in blacking, printing and copying inks, lubricants, elastic adhesives, lead oxide cements, antifreeze, or used as a preservative for printing on cotton fabric or as a nutrient for production of antibiotics.

Corn oil -- In addition to the food industry, corn oil is used in the pharmaceutical (Secondini, 1990) and the cosmetics industries (Ash and Ash, 1994). It is used in emollient creams and toothpaste (Winter, 1994). Ash and Ash (1994) list a number of corn oil products including corn oil (Trade names - Lipex104, Nikkol Corn Germ Oil, Super Refined Corn Oil, Univegoil CRN), corn oil PEG-6 esters (Trade name - Labrafil® WL 2125 CS), corn oil PEG-8 esters (Trade name - Labrafil® WL 2609 BS) and corn oil unsaponifiables (Trade name - ETIZM).

Wheat products -- Ash and Ash (1994) list a number of wheat derivatives that fall into the fat and oil classification. Wheat germ oil and wheat germ oil unsaponifiables are two of these. Wheat germ oil is produced under seven different trade names and used in a number of different cosmetic products. Wheat germ oil unsaponifiables are reported as being present in one product. Wheat lipid oxide is marketed under the trade name MackerniumTM WLE.

2.2.5 Quaternary Ammonium Compounds

Wheat germamidopropyl betaine, wheat germamidopropyl dimethylamine, wheat germamidopropyl dimethylamine hydrolysed collagen, wheat germamidopropyl dimethylamine hydrolysed wheat protein, wheat germamidopropyl dimethylamine lactate, wheat germamidopropyl dimonium hydroxypropyl hydrolysed wheat protein, wheat germamidopropyl silk hydroxypropyl dimonium chloride and wheat germamidopropyl ethydimonium ethosulfate fall into the category of quaternary ammonium compounds (Ash and Ash, 1994; Winter, 1994). Quaternary ammonium compounds are used as preservatives, surfactants and antiseptics and are generally derived synthetically from ammonium chloride. They are found in deodorants, after-shave lotions, shampoos, antiperspirants, cuticle softeners, hair products, hand creams and mouthwashes.

2.2.6 Pigments

Carotenoids, particularly astaxanthin, are used for pigmentation in poultry and aquaculture diets in order to provide colouration expected by the consumer of eggs and certain types of fish (Hayman et al., 1995). ß-carotene, which acts as a yellow colourant in the food industry and as a vitamin A precursor (Merck Index, 1976) is found in barley seeds. Carotene is found in corn and wheat grains (Food Composition and Nutrition Tables, 1989/1990). USDA scientists have shown that the red yeast Phaffia rhodozyma is able to grow and produce carotenoid pigments using various ethanol byproducts as substrates, including corn fibre and corn gluten (Hayman et al., 1995). There is industrial interest in exploring commercialization of this technology.

2.2.7 Enzymes

A number of enzymes, now used industrially can be found in the cereal grains. Lipase, for example, is found in wheat germ and bran as well as in oat hulls. It can be used to hydrolyse fats and oils without damaging other constituents including vitamins or unsaturated fatty acids. Lipase is used in the food industry for flavour enhancement and in detergents for the improvement of cleaning action (Merck Index, 1976).

Carboxypeptidase and phytase are also present in wheat bran (Murray et al., 1987). Carboxypeptidase is utilized in amino acid sequencing of proteins. Phytase is used to hydrolyse phytic acid.

Acid phosphatase, sucrose synthetase and sucrose phosphate synthetase have been found in wheat germ (Murray et al., 1987). Sigma Chemicals extracts acid phosphatase from wheat (Le Jardin de l'Aigle Reg., 1994). They also extract -amylase inhibitor from wheat and - and ß-amylase from barley. -amylase inhibitor's have potential for use in the treatment of wheat kernels to prevent sprouting during harvest.

2.2.8 Phytate and Phytate Derivatives

Phytic acid is found in the cereal grains including wheat and corn. It is used as a complexing agent for heavy metal ions and as a sodium salt (Merck Index, 1976). Phytate derivatives have also been suggested for treatment of a number of diseases including cancer, heart disease and diabetes (TWG Consulting Inc., 1995). Phytin® is a phytic acid calcium magnesium salt which is found in a number of grains (Merck Index, 1976). One of the primary sources is corn steep liquor. Phytin® is used as a nutrient, tonic, calcium supplement and as a feedstock for inositol manufacture. For more information see Chapter 1, section 2.4.5.1.

2.2.9 Organic Acids

A number of studies are investigating the production of organic acids from corn-to-ethanol byproducts (Powers, 1995). Organic acids have a number of functions. Acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid and lactic acid can be used as food additives or feed preservatives. Lactic acid can be used for the production of biodegradable plastics or in cosmetics (Ash and Ash, 1994). Acetic acid can be used as a feedstock for production of other chemicals (pharmaceuticals, plastics, dyes, insecticides, photography chemicals), as an antioxidant or as the deicer calcium magnesium acetate.

Propionic acid is used in thermoplastics, antiarthritic medicines, perfumes, flavours, solvents and as an antifungal agent in foods and feeds (Paik and Glatz, 1994). Corn steep liquor, as a byproduct of fuel ethanol production, represents a potentially abundant and inexpensive substrate for fermentation by propionibacteria.

2.2.10 Extracts

Ash and Ash (1994) list a number of cosmetics and toiletry additives simply as "extracts" without further detail of their chemical composition. Extracts of corn germ, barley, wheat, wheat germ, oats and oat bran are produced by a number of companies and used in a range of products.

2.2.11 Ethanol

Ethanol, also called ethyl alcohol, is used in the manufacture of essential oils, flavourings, perfumes, hard and soft beverages, pizza crusts, printing inks, soaps, vinegar and pharmaceuticals (Secondini, 1990; Lewis, 1989). It is also utilized as an antimicrobial agent and solvent.

2.2.12 Polymers

A number of derivatives from cereal plants have application in biodegradable polymers (Forward, 1994). An example is pullulan which may be derived from corn products using the fungus Aureobasidium (Leathers and Gupta, 1994). Pullulan can be made into films, nylon-like fibres and polystyrene-like compression mouldings that have application in food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and other industries. The world market for pullulan is approximately $12 million U.S. and at present this is produced by starch fermentation (Dr. T. Leathers, personal communication).

2.2.13 Calcium Magnesium Acetate

Calcium magnesium acetate, derived from corn, is used for de-icing on bridges (Forward, 1994).

2.2.14 Xylitol

Xylitol is a sweetener that is primarily produced in Finland using acid-treated fibres of birch wood (Chemical Marketing Reporter, 1993). It does not cause dental caries and is used in chewing gums. According to Dr. Timothy Leathers at USDA, there may be potential for expanding the current world market of $28 million U.S. to include use in foodstuffs for diabetics. Xylitol can be made from chemical conversion of the xylan found in corn fibre. A number of major companies in the U.S. have looked at the commercialization of this technology.

2.2.15 Aquaculture Feed Products

Dr. Victor Wu and his associates at the Biopolymer Research Unit, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research (USDA) have evaluated the use of corn gluten feed in Nile tilapia diets as a low cost replacement for conventional catfish feed. As a result, corn gluten meal is now being used on a commercial scale in the industry in conjunction with Arthur Daniels Midland (Dr. T. Leathers, personal communication).

2.2.16 Cinnamic Acid

Different forms of cinnamates have use in sunscreens and in the manufacture of esters for perfumes, medicines and glass prisms and lenses (TWG Consulting Inc., 1995; Merck Index, 1976). Cinnamates are found in wheat bran.

2.2.17 Alternan

USDA scientists have shown that corn condensed distillers' solubles can be utilized as a nutrient source for the production of alternan, a new bacterial gum that can be used in place of gum arabic in food products (Dr. T. Leathers, personal communication).

2.2.18 Diethylamine

Found in barley kernels, diethylamine has use in the rubber and petroleum industry, and in flotation agents, resins, dyes and pharmaceuticals (Merck Index, 1976). It is generally manufactured from ethanol and ammonia.

2.2.19 Piperidine

Piperidine has been isolated from barley (Le Jardin de l'Aigle Reg., 1994) and is used in the pharmaceutical industry as an antihistamine (drug facts and comparisons, 1994).

3. LIST OF REFERENCES

Ash, M.; Ash, I. (1994) Handbook of Cosmetic and Personal Care Additives. Hampshire, England: Gower Publishing, Ltd.

Chem. Marketing Reporter (August 30, 1993) Xylitol from corn fibre. p. 9

Cheryan, M.; Parekh, S.R. (1995) Separation of glycerol and organic acids in model ethanol stillage by electrodialysis and precipitation. Process Biochem. 30:17-23

Christensen, J. (1994) The biorefinery concept - a bridge from farm to industry. Wheat Utilization Summit, Kansas City Missouri, December 8, 1994. 13 pp.

Cook, R.; Shulman, M. (1994) Aqueous, ultrapure zein lattices as functional ingredients and coatings. Corn Util. Conf. V.

drug facts and comparisons (1994) St. Louis, MS.: Facts and Comparisons, a Walters Kluwer Co.

Duxbury, D. D. (1991) Glycerine: Versatile ingredient. Food Process. 52: 136-138

Flick, E.W. (1991) Cosmetics Additives - An Industrial Guide. New Jersey: Noyes Publications

Food Composition and Nutrition Tables (1989/1990) Stuttgart: Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft mbH. 4th edition

Forward, Pam (August, 1994) Beyond ethanol: Industrial uses of agricultural materials. A background and opportunities paper. Food Bureau, Market and Industry Services Branch, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. 55 pp.

Hayman, G.T.; Mannarelli, B.M.; Leathers, T.D. (1995) Production of carotenoids by Phaffia rhodozyma grown on media composed of corn wet-milling co-products. J. Indust. Microbiol. 14:389-395

ICAST (July, 1994) Market Focus: Ethanol and co-product market assessment. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada/Natural Resources Canada. Contract No. 32SS.01532-3-1016

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