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SEA-BUCKTHORN
A PROMISING MULTI-PURPOSE
CROP FOR SASKATCHEWAN
W.R. Schroeder¹ and Y. Yao²
Introduction
Sea-buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) is a fascinating plant species. It is native
to Europe
and Asia and has been known and used by humans for centuries. It is mentioned in the
writings of ancient Greek scholars such as Dioscorid and Therophast. In ancient Greece,
sea-buckthorn was known as a remedy for horses. Leaves and young branches were added to the
fodder. This resulted in rapid weight gain and a shiny coat for the horse. This, in fact, gave
the name to the plant in Latin 'Hippo' - horse, 'phaos' - to shine (Rongsen 1992).
During the last decade, sea-buckthorn has attracted special attention and become an
important
subject for domestication in many countries. Its potential has attracted the attention of
researchers from Asia, Europe and, recently, North America. In 1988, publication of the
Chinese journal "Hippophae" was initiated. In 1989, the first international symposium on
sea-buckthorn was held in Xian, China; in 1993, the second symposium was held in
Novosibirsk,
Siberia. An International Workshop on Sea-buckthorn is planned for December 1995 in
Beijing, China.
The nutritional and medicinal value of sea-buckthorn is largely unknown in North
America.
However, its properties have been known and exploited in Eurasia for centuries. The
medicinal value of sea-buckthorn was recorded in the Tibetan medical classic "'rGyud
Bzi" in
the eight century (Li and Guo 1989). There are many stories expounding the wonderful
properties of sea-buckthorn as an invigorating and nutritious product. Based on this folklore as
well as scientific research, sea-buckthorn has become an important medicinal and nutritional
product, especially in Russia where it is referred to as "Siberian pineapple" because
of
its taste
and juiciness.
The sea-buckthorn industry has been thriving in Russia since the 1940's when scientists
there
began investigating the biologically active substances found in the fruit, leaves and bark. The
first Russian factory for sea-buckthorn product development was located in Bisk. These
products were utilized in the diet of Russian cosmonauts and as a cream for protection from
cosmic radiation. The Chinese experience with sea-buckthorn fruit production is more recent,
although traditional uses date back many centuries. Research and plantation establishment
were initiated in the 1980's. Since 1982 over 300 thousand hectares of sea-buckthorn have
been planted in China. In addition, 150 processing factories have been established producing
over 200 products. The sea-buckthorn based sports drinks "Shawikang" and "Jianibao" were
designated the official drink for Chinese athletes attending the Seoul Olympic Games (Rongsen
1992).
The potential of sea-buckthorn in North American markets remains untapped. Climatic
and
soil conditions in Saskatchewan are ideally suited for high quality fruit production. This paper
provides background on the uses and value of sea-buckthorn and explores the potential of a
sea-buckthorn orchard and processing industry in Saskatchewan. This was accomplished
through an extensive literature review and discussions with people currently involved in the
sea-buckthorn industry.
Biology and Genetic Diversity
The genus Hippophae belongs to the Elaeagnaceae family.
According to recent taxonomical
studies, it includes five species, of which H. rhamnoides was further divided into
eight
subspecies (Rousi 1971, Lian 1988). The genus Hippophae is distributed between
27o-69o N
latitude and 7°W to 122°E longitude (Rousi 1971, Pan et al. 1989, Yu et al. 1989).
However
of the five species in the genus, only H. rhamnoides has an extremely wide
distribution in
Eurasia, from China, Mongolia, Russia, Kazakastan, Turkey, Romania, Switzerland, France
to Britain, and north to Finland, Norway and Sweden. It grows on hills and hillsides, in
valleys and river beds, along sea coasts and islands, in small isolated or large continuous pure
stands or in mixed stands with other shrub or tree species (Yao 1994). The remaining species
in the genus have a rather limited distribution and occur only in China and some neighboring
countries along the Himalaya mountains (Rousi 1971, Liu and He 1978, Lian 1988, Yu et al.
1989).
H. rhamnoides usually forms a shrub or small tree three to four meters in
height. A tree-like
appearance is often formed because only the buds on the outer portions of the plant sprout and
branch. It is a dioecious species with male and female flowers on separate trees. Pollination
is normally aided by wind. Flower buds are differentiated during the previous growing
season, so the number fruit produced in any one year depends on the growing conditions of the
preceding year. The fruit is tightly clustered on two year old branches (Figure 1). Sea-buckthorn
is easy to propagate by seed or cuttings. It can grow in arid to very wet conditions
and tolerates cold winters. Though it prefers sandy and neutral soil, sea-buckthorn survives in
soils with pH values from 5-9 (Schroeder 1995) and tolerates sea water flooding. It is a
pioneer species and often the first woody species colonizing open areas such as abandoned
farmland, wasteland, and rocky islands (Rousi 1965, Yao and Zhu 1985, Salo 1989, Yao
1994). Sea-buckthorn prefers full sunlight and does not tolerate shade and suffers even under
sparse tree cover. Like other members of the Elaeagnaceae family sea-buckthorn is
also a
nitrogen fixer.
Genetic diversity is the basis for plant adaptation, evolution and breeding. Sea-buckthorn
is
extremely variable in height, from a small bush less than 50 cm to a tree more than 20 m high
(Rousi 1971, Yu et al. 1989, Yao and Tigerstedt 1994). Phenological studies show a clear
clinal variation in growth rhythm, hardiness and height according to the geographic
distribution, ie. the higher the latitude, the shorter the growth period and plant height (Yao and
Tigerstedt 1995).
Sea-buckthorn berries have attractive colors, varying from yellow, orange to red. The size
of
berries varies from 4-60 g/100 berries among genotypes in natural populations, and exceeds 60
g in some Russian cultivars (Yao 1994). Sea-buckthorn shows diverse fruit shapes, from
flattened spherical, cylindrical, ovate, elliptic to many irregular shapes. The combination of
fruit color, shape and size provides diverse choice and increases the ornamental value of the
plant. Normally sea-buckthorn has terminal and lateral thorns. Observations show large
variation in terms of density, shape and sharpness in natural populations. In Russia, Mongolia
and Germany, thornless or nearly thornless cultivars have been bred.
Isozyme analysis has shown large genetic diversity at the species, subspecies and
population
level (Yao and Tigerstedt 1993). Biochemical analysis of sea-buckthorn berries has revealed a
wide range of variations in vitamin C, carotene, flavonoid and vitamin E concentrations among
individual genotypes and populations (Yao 1994). Genetic diversity in sea-buckthorn provides
a good opportunity for plant breeding and selection while clinal variation of growth rhythm,
height and hardiness provide guidelines for seed and plant transfer as well as plant
introduction. Plant breeders can use this information to design their breeding plans to obtain
an ideal type with certain growth periods, maturity time and plant height for a particular
region or cultivation technology (Yao 1994).
Chemical Composition And Nutritional Values
Sea-buckthorn berries are among the most nutritious and vitamin-rich fruits found in the
plant
kingdom. The vitamin C concentration in berries varies from 360 mg/100g of berries for the
European subspecies rhamnoides (Rousi and Aulin 1977, Plekhanova 1988,
Wahlberg
and
Jeppsson 1990, 1992, Yao et al. 1992) to 2500 mg/100g of berries for the Chinese subspecies
sinensis (Yang et al. 1988, Zhao et al. 1991, Yao and Tigerstedt 1994). The carotene
content
ranges from 30 to 40 mg/100g of berries (Bernath and Foldesi 1992, Wolf and Wegert 1993).
Vitamin E concentration can be up to 160 mg/100g of berries (Zhang et al. 1989, Ma and Cui
1989, Eliseev 1989, Wahlberg and Jeppsson 1990 1992). Sea-buckthorn is also rich in
flavonoid (vitamin P) and contains appreciable amounts of water soluble and fat soluble
vitamins (Zhang et al. 1989, Solonenko and Shishkina 1989, Schapiro 1989).
Sea-buckthorn berries contain up to 13% soluble sugars, mainly glucose, fructose and
xylose,
and 3.9% organic acids, mainly malic and succinic acid, (Ma and Cui 1989). Sea-buckthorn
is
rich in proteins and free amino acids. A total of 18 amino acids have been found in
sea-buckthorn
fruit (Zhang et al. 1989, Mironov 1989). There are at least 24 chemical elements
present in sea-buckthorn juice; eg. nitrogen, phosphorous, iron, manganese, boron, calcium,
aluminum, silicon and others (Wolf and Wegert 1993, Zhang et al. 1989, Tong et al. 1989).
The oil content of the juice and the seeds ranges from 2 to 8 percent. Oil from the juice
and
pulp is rich in palmitic and palmitoleic acids (C16:0 and C16:1), while the oil from the seed
contains unsaturated fatty acids of C18 type oils (linoleic and linolenic acid). Oils from the
seed and juice also contain Vitamin E and carotenes (Bernath and Foldesi 1992, Ma and Cui
1989). Fatty acid components of the fruit, pulp and seed described by Ma and Cui (1989) are
shown in Figure 2. In addition, sea-buckthorn berries, leaves and bark contain -sitosterol,
tocopherol and many other bioactive compounds (Mironov 1989).
Medicinal Uses
Medicinal uses of sea-buckthorn are well documented in Asia and Europe. Investigations
on
modern medicinal uses were initiated in Russia during the 1950's (Gurevich 1956, Akulinin
1958). Preparations of sea-buckthorn oils are recommended for external use in the case of
burns, bed sores, and other skin complications induced by confinement to a bed or treatment
with X-ray or radiation (Zhang et al. 1988, Pentagova 1983). Internally, sea-buckthorn is
used for the treatment of stomach and duodenal ulcers (Pentegova 1983). In the United
Kingdom and Europe sea-buckthorn products are used in aromatherapy (C. Wells pers. com.).
Research in the late 1950's and early 1960's reported that 5-hydroxytryptamine (hippophan)
isolated from sea-buckthorn bark inhibited tumor growth (Pukhalsskaia 1958, Sokoloff et al.
1961). More recently, clinical studies on the anti-tumor functions of sea-buckthorn oils
conducted in China have been positive (Zhang et al. 1989). Sea-buckthorn oil, juice or the
extracts from oil, juice, leaves and bark have been used successfully to treat high blood lipid
symptoms, eye diseases, gingivitis and cardiovascular diseases such as high blood pressure and
coronary heart disease (Zhang et al. 1989, Wang 1979, Liu et al. 1980, Ge et al. 1985).
Sea-buckthorn was formally listed in the "Pharmacopoeia of China" in 1977 (Xu 1994).
Sea-buckthorn Products
Since the discovery of the nutritional value of sea-buckthorn, hundreds of sea-buckthorn
products made from the berries, oil, leaves, bark and the extracts from them have been
developed. In Europe sea-buckthorn juice, jellies, liquors, candy, vitamin C tablets and
ice-cream
are readily available (Bernáth and Földesi 1992, Wolf and Wegert 1993,
Morzewski
and
Bakowska 1960). It is also used in Eastern Europe as a food colorant and a fabric dye (H.
Albrecht pers. com.). Examples of commercial products available are: 'Biodoat' sold in
Austria; 'Exsativa' a vitamin supplement sold in Switzerland; sea-buckthorn syrup in France;
liqueurs in Finland; and 'Homoktovis Nektar' an apple based fruit juice sold in Hungary.
Sea-buckthorn jams and jellies are produced on a small scale in Saskatchewan (PFRA 1992).
Most
of the product is made and utilized by individuals; one Saskatchewan gourmet food processor
has been test marketing sea-buckthorn jelly (Bep Hamer pers. com.).
At present, the largest producers and consumers of sea-buckthorn products are China,
Russia,
and Mongolia. They all have large scale processing facilities. Processed products include:
oil, juice, alcoholic beverages, candies, ice-cream, tea, jam, biscuits, vitamin C tablets, food
colors, medicines, cosmetics and shampoos (Iirkina and Shishkina 1976, Pan et al. 1989,
Huang et al. 1990, Wu 1991, Niu 1991).
Oils and oil extracts are the most important sea-buckthorn products produced in Russia.
These
oils are processed and sold as essential oils for numerous medicinal and therapeutic uses. Fruit
drinks were among the earliest sea-buckthorn products developed in China. These drinks have
had strong market demand and excellent consumer acceptance. They have rapidly gained a
reputation as both a satisfying drink as well as a nutritional beverage that enhances stamina and
vitality. Sea-buckthorn based juices are also popular in Germany and Scandinavia (H.
Albrecht pers. com.).
Cosmetic applications for sea-buckthorn are well known in Russia and China. In Russia,
sea-buckthorn berries are often used in home made cosmetics. Recipes for moisturizing lotions,
dandruff control and hair loss prevention are widely known and used in Russia (Pashina 1993).
Sea-buckthorn oils contain high concentrations of palmitoleic acid. This rare fatty acid is a
component of skin fat and can support cell tissue and wound healing. It is generally accepted
in the cosmetic industry that sea-buckthorn oils have unique anti-aging properties and as a
result are becoming an important component of many facial creams manufactured in Asia and
Europe. In addition, the UV-spectrum of the oil shows a moderate absorption in the UV-B
range which makes sea-buckthorn derived products attractive for sun care cosmetics (Quirin
and Gerard 1994). The Body Shop, a well established cosmetic chain in Canada, is adding
sea-buckthorn oil to their sun screen products as a sun-blocking and tan-enhancing agent. The
potential of sea-buckthorn oils for dermatological applications such as face masks, body
lotions, sun lotions and shampoos is excellent. Clinical research and development in this area
is currently under way in Europe as well as Canada (C. Wells pers. com.).
Environmental Value
Sea-buckthorn is an attractive ornamental plant with bright orange fruit and narrow, silver
green leaves. The fruit persists all winter and can be a very showy element in the winter
garden. It is used as a garden plant in many European countries and the Canadian prairies.
Observations and surveys show that many birds and animals utilize sea-buckthorn for food and
shelter (Ma and Sum 1986, PFRA 1988, Salo 1989). In the Canadian prairies sea-buckthorn is
especially valuable habitat for the sharp-tail grouse, Hungarian partridge and pheasant
(Schroeder 1995).
The wide adaptation, fast growth, strong coppicing and suckering habits coupled with
efficient
nitrogen fixation make sea-buckthorn well adapted for soil conservation, soil improvement and
marginal land reclamation. Studies have shown that sea-buckthorn promotes the growth of
poplars, pines and other trees in mixed stands (Lei et al. 1983, Bai 1984, Shi et al. 1987).
From 1950 to 1985, China planted 200,000 hectares of sea-buckthorn for soil and water
conservation and fuelwood production. In Canada, Hungary, Russia, Romania and Germany,
sea-buckthorn has been used to reclaim wasteland or mined areas.
In Canada, sea-buckthorn is utilized for enhancement of wildlife habitat, farmstead
protection,
erosion control, riparian protection and mineland reclamation (Schroeder 1990). The PFRA
Shelterbelt Centre at Indian Head has been growing sea-buckthorn for many years. Over one
million sea-buckthorn seedlings have been planted in the prairies since 1982 (Figure 3). In
these plantings sea-buckthorn forms a shrub or a small tree. The species is one of the hardiest
and most adaptable woody plants used in prairie conservation programs (Schroeder 1988).
Tree planting is a major component of wildlife habitat improvement programs in the
Canadian
prairies (PFRA 1988). These plantings ensure wildlife have adequate food, thermal cover and
protection. Wildlife plantings may be multi-row field shelterbelts, bluff extensions or block
plantings. One example of extensive use of sea-buckthorn for wildlife enhancement is the
Rafferty wildlife mitigation project near Estevan, Saskatchewan. The project, initiated in
1989, involves revegetation of 5000 acres of agricultural land with grass, trees and shrubs. A
total of 50,000 sea-buckthorn have been planted at the project. The number of sea-buckthorn
plants at Rafferty has increased significantly through colonization by suckering. This is the
largest population of sea-buckthorn in North America. Wildlife populations, especially upland
gamebirds and songbirds, have increased significantly since the start of the mitigation project.
Sea-buckthorn is a preferred nest site for songbirds and provides excellent escape cover for
upland gamebirds.
Farmstead shelterbelts are important components of agriculture in the Canadian prairies.
These multi-row shelterbelts modify the climate surrounding the farmstead, reduce energy
costs for home heating, reduce noise, filter pollutants and attract beneficial wildlife.
Sea-buckthorn
is planted in the outer row of multi-row shelterbelts surrounding farmsteads. The
species provides effective snow trapping in the winter, attracts wildlife and is a source of fruit
for jams and jellies. In 1995, 59,000 sea-buckthorn (70 kilometers of tree row) were planted
in farmstead shelterbelts.
In the Canadian prairies approximately 1000 kilometers of field shelterbelts are planted
annually to prevent soil erosion and for microclimate modification. These shelterbelts protect
the soil and increase crop yields. Sea-buckthorn is one of several species used in the outer row
of multiple row shelterbelts and in multi-species single row shelterbelts. The sea-buckthorn
provides valuable wildlife habitat as well as soil erosion protection. In 1995, 78,000
sea-buckthorn (94 kilometers of tree row) were planted in single and multi-row field shelterbelts.
Feasibility of Sea-buckthorn Production in Saskatchewan
Sea-buckthorn is well adapted to the Canadian Prairies. It has been used in the prairies for
many years as a shelterbelt species and as an ornamental landscape plant. Investigations of
sea-buckthorn plantings in Saskatchewan have shown that this species has the potential to be
cultivated commercially. Fruit production in shelterbelts ranges from good to excellent with
some plants producing 5 to 7 kilograms of fruit annually. This equates to yields of 4 to 5
tonnes per hectare. It is estimated that there are over 250,000 mature fruit producing
sea-buckthorn in Saskatchewan. Potential annual fruit supply from these plantings is 750,000
kilograms. Plantations range in size from 150 to 300 plants and were primarily planted for
farmstead protection, erosion control and/or wildlife habitat. The largest plantation is located
near Estevan and includes approximately 25,000 fruit producing plants. There are no
commercial sea-buckthorn orchards in the prairies at the present time.
Cost of production analysis was calculated for a 10 acre sea-buckthorn plantation. The
analysis assumed yields of six kilograms per tree, hand harvesting and no irrigation. Using
these assumptions, projected production costs were $1.05/lb in year seven when fruit
production had stabilized. This compares to reported production costs of $1.42/lb for hand
picked saskatoon berries in a similar sized orchard. The difference in production costs are
related to significantly higher yields for sea-buckthorn and reduced inputs (ie. irrigation). The
major cost component for sea-buckthorn was harvesting (hand picking) which was estimated to
be $.75/lb.
Several Canadian and foreign companies have expressed interest in production and
processing
of sea-buckthorn in Saskatchewan. It is estimated that there is a potential annual demand for
10,000 kilograms of processed sea-buckthorn oil in North America. This would require an
annual supply of approximately 1.5 million kilograms of fruit. Test marketing of sea-buckthorn
jelly in Saskatchewan showed good demand for the product especially when the
nutritional components of the product were emphasized. The Specialty Berry Market Study
commissioned by the Saskatchewan Indian Agriculture Program (SIAP) briefly investigated
market potential of sea-buckthorn (SIAP 1994). The report showed a potential demand from
Europe for 75,000 kilograms of fruit. The study concluded that there is potential for a long
term European market because of supply and quality problems presently being experienced in
Europe. SIAP reported that sea-buckthorn demand currently is exceeding supply.
Canada Sea-buckthorn Ltd. has completed a feasibility study on the establishment of 200
acres
of sea-buckthorn in Saskatchewan (C. McLoughlin pers. com.). Their market analysis
indicated that emphasis should be placed on processing of a sea-buckthorn based sports drink
(juice) and herbal teas (leaves) with the residual product (seeds and pulp) utilized for essential
oils. Essentially Oils Ltd., a United Kingdom based company primarily serving the European
market, has expressed strong interest in expanding their essential oil marketing program to
North America (C. Wells pers. com.). Current market price for sea-buckthorn oil distributed
by Essentially Oils Ltd. is $200/kg. Their research has shown that the growth potential for
sea-buckthorn based cosmetic and pet care products is excellent.
The advantages of establishing a sea-buckthorn production and processing industry in
Saskatchewan are: favorable soil and climatic conditions that contribute to the production of
high quality, nutrient-rich sea-buckthorn fruit; the availability of land at reasonable cost for
orchards; supply of high quality water for processing; the presence of facilities, expertise and
experience in oil extraction and processing technology (ie. POS Pilot Plant in Saskatoon) and
the commitment by government, primary producers and industry to the establishment of
diversified, value-added enterprises.
There are several immediate constraints to the establishment of a viable sea-buckthorn
orchard
and processing industry in Saskatchewan. Production technology utilized in Eastern Europe,
Russia and Asia is dependent on a supply of cheap labor. Efficient orchard management and
harvesting methods need to be developed to make the industry competitive. No improved
cultivars have been developed and tested for Saskatchewan conditions. A cultivar development
program that concentrates on maximum yield, thornlessness, high nutrient and oil content and
efficient fruit harvesting needs to be initiated. Immediate supply of sea-buckthorn fruit for
processing would rely on plants that have been established in shelterbelts and wildlife
plantings. These plantings are widely distributed throughout the province so co-ordination of
large scale fruit collection until orchards come into production would be required. Product
development of juices, sports drinks, jellies and other condiments is required. Test marketing
of these products will be necessary. Whatever products are developed the health and
nutritional benefits of sea-buckthorn will need to be emphasized.
There has been a reluctance on the part of North Americans to accept traditional medicine
or
natural remedies for human ailments. This attitude is changing and consumer acceptance of
traditional medicine is growing. If folk remedies can be supported by clinical evidence public
acceptance should not be a problem. There is, however, a need for North American clinical
research on the reported medicinal and nutritional attributes of sea-buckthorn.
Conclusion
Sea-buckthorn provides a number of unique products that are widely used in Eurasia but
relatively unknown in North America. Exotic and unique plant products are gaining popularity
in North America, especially those which have a proven health or nutritional benefit. Private
industry from outside Saskatchewan and North America has shown considerable interest in
development of a sea-buckthorn industry in Saskatchewan. The future for sea-buckthorn in
Saskatchewan is promising. There is excellent opportunity for development of a North
American market but also for export to Europe and Asia where demand for sea-buckthorn
products is exceeding current supply. An superb opportunity exists for Saskatchewan to
become a North American leader in sea-buckthorn production and processing.
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For more information contact:
PFRA Shelterbelt Centre
Indian Head, Saskatchewan
S0G 2K0
Phone: (306) 695-2284
Fax: (306) 695-2568
E-mail: pfratree@agr.gc.ca
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