Child Abuse and Neglect Overview Paper
What Is Child Abuse?
Child abuse occurs when a parent, guardian or caregiver
mistreats or neglects a child, resulting in
• injury, or
• significant emotional or psychological harm, or
• serious risk of harm to the child.
Child abuse entails the betrayal of a caregiver's
position of trust and authority over a child. It can take many different
forms.
Physical abuse is the deliberate application of force
to any part of a child's body, which results or may result in a
non-accidental injury. It may involve hitting a child a single time,
or it may involve a pattern of incidents. Physical abuse also includes
behaviour such as shaking, choking, biting, kicking, burning or
poisoning a child, holding a child under water, or any other harmful
or dangerous use of force or restraint. Child physical abuse is
usually connected to physical punishment or is confused with child
discipline.
Child sexual abuse occurs when a child is used for
sexual purposes by an adult or adolescent. It involves exposing
a child to any sexual activity or behaviour. Sexual abuse most often
involves fondling and may include inviting a child to touch or be
touched sexually. Other forms of sexual abuse include sexual intercourse,
juvenile prostitution and sexual exploitation through pornography.
Sexual abuse is inherently abusive emotionally and is often accompanied
by separate and more direct forms of psychological abuse or other
forms of mistreatment. Child sexual abuse is not further addressed
in this fact sheet. A separate fact sheet dealing exclusively with
child sexual abuse is available from the National Clearinghouse
on Family Violence.
Neglect occurs when a child's parents or other caregivers
are not providing essential requisites to a child's emotional, psychological
and physical development. Physical neglect occurs when a child's
needs for food, clothing, shelter, cleanliness, medical care and
protection from harm are not adequately met. Emotional neglect occurs
when a child's need to feel loved, wanted, safe and worthy is not
met. Emotional neglect can range from the context of the abuser
simply being unavailable to that in which the abuser openly rejects
the child. While a case of physical assault is more likely to come
to the attention of public authorities, neglect can represent an
equally serious risk to a child.
Emotional abuse involves an attack on a child's sense
of self. Emotional abuse is usually found in the context of a long-term
problem in a parent's treatment of a child. It is often part of
a pattern of family stress and dysfunctional parenting.1
Emotional abuse frequently co-exists with other types of abuse.
Constantly insulting, humiliating or rejecting a child, or saying
that a child is ``stupid'' or ``bad'', can harm a child's sense
of worth and self-confidence.
Other forms of emotionally abusive treatment include
forcing a child into social isolation, intimidating, exploiting,
terrorizing or routinely making unreasonable demands on a child.
Some provinces in Canada now include exposure of a child to violence
between the parents as a form of emotional abuse. A recent study
of wife assault found that children witness violence against their
mothers in almost 40 percent of violent marriages.2
How Does Society Respond to Child Abuse?
Canadian society's primary formal response to child
abuse and neglect is through its provincial child protection systems.
The provincial laws on child welfare require that all cases of suspected
child abuse and neglect be investigated. A variety of actions can
be taken if the investigation indicates the child is in need of
protection. Responses range from providing counselling and support
services to the family, to temporarily or permanently removing the
child from the home, to removing the abuser or abusers from the
home. In the most serious cases, abusers may be convicted of a crime
if the abuse can be proven under the Criminal Code of Canada.
In addition, many intervention and education programs
are aimed at preventing child abuse and neglect. Prevention programs
range from intensive help for families exhibiting a high risk of
abuse, to general education programs for school students and the
public. Everyone has a role to play in responding to and preventing
child abuse and neglect.
How Widespread Is the Problem?
It is difficult to attain a reliable measure of the
number of people who are abused at some time in their childhood
(the prevalence of child abuse). It is also difficult to
estimate the number of children who are abused in a single year
(the annual incidence of child abuse). There is increasingly
reliable information on the number of child abuse cases handled
by child protection agencies and police, but the number of children
suffering from undiscovered and unreported abuse can only be estimated.
Over the last decade, there has been a dramatic increase
in both the reports of suspected abuse and neglect, and the number
of children found to be in need of protection. However, it is clear
that many cases of child abuse, even some serious ones, are not
reported. Individuals and professionals working with children may
fail to report because they do not recognize the signs and symptoms
of child abuse. In some instances, they may tend to resist admitting
to themselves that it is really happening or that it is serious
enough to report.
Several other factors inhibit voluntary reporting:
• the nature of family problems related to child
abuse and neglect,
• the sense of secrecy and shame surrounding child maltreatment,
• the possible consequences of intervention by child protection
authorities or police, and
• many of the victims are young and relatively dependent.
Children may want to disclose their abuse so it can
be stopped, but they are often afraid that no one will believe or
help them. They may be afraid of what will happen. Abusive parents
frequently warn their children not to tell anyone. They may convince
the child that the abuse is the child's fault, and that telling
someone will only get them into more trouble.
There are no national statistics on the prevalence
or incidence of child abuse in Canada. Each province and territory
compiles its own figures, using its own definitions. A 1994 report,
Child Welfare in Canada: The Role of Provincial and Territorial
Authorities in Cases of Child Abuse, describes the provincial
laws, definitions and child welfare systems that deal with child
abuse.3 A 1996 report, Child
and Family Services Annual Statistical Report 1992-93 to 1994-95,
presents statistical data on child welfare services in Canada.4
The available data cannot be directly or easily compared among provinces
because the information is collected according to different definitions
and parameters in each jurisdiction. Nonetheless, the following
facts provide some insight into how widespread the problems of child
abuse and neglect really are.
In Canada in 1992, approximately 40 000 children were
living in foster care or other settings away from their home of
origin because of the intervention of child protection authorities.5
In Ontario, the number of Children's Aid Society investigations
for child physical abuse increased from 3 546 in 1983 6
to an estimated 13 236 in 1993.7
The number of investigations increased by a yearly average of 27
percent over this 10-year period.8
Child abuse and neglect occur in every province and
territory, in large cities, small towns and rural areas. While children
of all ages are at risk, those 3 years old or less are most
frequently investigated for neglect, and children 12 to 15
years old are most frequently investigated for physical abuse.9
Facts to Consider
Family Factors
• Child abuse is not confined to any one social
class or sector of the population; it cuts across all ethnic, religious,
social and economic backgrounds. However, economic disadvantage
is a major contributor to child neglect.10
Poverty also appears to be a risk factor for physical abuse, though
not for emotional abuse.11
• There is evidence that the prevalence of child neglect is
significantly lower in Canada than in the United States, possibly
because of the lower rates of child poverty in Canada.12
• Causes of stress on families, such as unemployment, can contribute
to child maltreatment.13
The Victim
• The most potentially serious cases of child
abuse involve preschoolers and infants. Younger children are at
greater risk of severe injury or death as a result of child abuse.14
• ``Failure to thrive'' in infants is sometimes the result
of neglect. In extreme cases, it leads to developmental delays and
even death. Many of the mothers of these infants were themselves
abused as children.15
• A child can be harmed by events that occur before he or she
is born. If a pregnant woman uses alcohol16
or drugs17, especially in the
first two months of pregnancy, it can cause the child to be born
with birth defects or developmental delays.
• The effects of child abuse are profound. Children who are
abused tend to experience more social problems and perform less
well in school than non-abused children.18
This can have lasting effects on their social adjustment and success
in life.
• Children who are both emotionally and physically abused exhibit
the greatest degree of aggression, delinquency and interpersonal
problems.19 Physical abuse inherently
conveys a message that is psychologically harmful to the child,
but psychological or emotional abuse that is explicit and systematic
has more negative consequences for the child than physical abuse.
20
• Victims of childhood abuse are at greater risk of becoming
violent criminals. A study of men in Canadian prisons showed that
those who were abused as children were three times more likely than
non-abused men to be violent as adults.21
• Women who were abused in childhood are more likely to suffer
from depression, low self-esteem and suicidal thoughts.22
The Abuser
• Abusive parents frequently receive little enjoyment
from parenting and are more isolated from the community than non-abusive
parents. They have unrealistic expectations of their child and try
to control the child through negative and authoritarian means.
• Abusive parents are often afraid of, or emotionally unable
to ask for help from, sources of support in their community.
• Most abusive parents have themselves been abused or neglected
as children. However, not all victims of abuse go on to assault
children. Parents with a history of abuse who do not abuse their
children are generally the ones who have developed supportive relations
with others.23
• Many abusers view themselves as victims in life generally
or in the parent-child relationship in particular. They feel that
they have lost control of their children and their own lives. When
their children behave in a manner the parents perceive as disrespectful,
they lash out in an effort to establish control.24
• Because abusive parents often have unrealistic expectations
about their child's development and abilities, they demand a level
of physical, social and emotional maturity which is not appropriate
for the age of the child.
Reporting Child Abuse
Sometimes people think that child abuse is a private
family matter. It is not. If you have reasonable grounds to suspect
that a child is being abused or neglected, promptly report your
concerns to the child welfare agency, provincial or territorial
social services department or police force in your community. If
necessary, a report can be made anonymously.
Reporting is not difficult or time consuming. In all
cases, the person reporting is protected from any kind of legal
action, provided the report is not falsely made and motivated by
malice.
Where to Go for Services
Contact your local
– child welfare agency,
– social service agency,
– police department,
– hospital,
– mental health centre,
– distress centre, or
– other community service organization that provides counselling
and support to children and families.
Many of these organizations are listed among the emergency
telephone numbers on or near the first page of your local telephone
directory.
Children who want help can also call the Kids' Help
Phone at 1-800-668-6868.
What Can Be Done to Prevent Child Abuse?
Most abusive parents do not consciously set out to
harm their children. If there are more and better efforts to assist
troubled families, parents at risk of abusing may be reached and
helped before they resort to violence. Prevention is a good investment,
in terms of both the personal and social costs that can be saved.
• Parenting education can help parents to better
understand normal child development and to have a more nurturing
and enjoyable relationship with their children. Positive approaches
to parenting can help parents with children of any age.
• Encourage your local school board to develop
and implement child abuse prevention programs. Abused children tend
to repeat the pattern of abuse, and prevention is one of the most
effective means to stop the cycle of violence.
• If a child tells you about an abusive situation
or experience, be supportive. Show the child that he or she is believed,
and ensure that the occurrence is promptly reported to the appropriate
authorities.
• You can assist by teaching children how to
recognize and say no to abusive or exploitative behaviour. Children
should know that they have the right to be free from abuse and exploitation.
• You can help the children and adults in your
life find information and assistance to prevent an abusive or neglectful
pattern from developing.
Suggested Reading
Nanci Burns, Literature Review of Issues
Related to the Use of Corrective Force Against Children,
Ottawa: Department of Justice, June 1993.
Joan E. Durrant and Linda Rose-Krasnor, Spanking:
Should I or Shouldn't I?, Winnipeg: Department of Family
Studies, University of Manitoba, 1995.
National Clearinghouse on Family Violence, Overview
Papers on Child Sexual Abuse, Wife Abuse, Dating Violence, Abuse
of Seniors, etc., Ottawa: Health Canada.
Thomas Gordon, Ph.D., Discipline That Works:
Promoting Self-Discipline in Children, New York: Plume
Books, 1991.
United Nations General Assembly, Convention
on the Rights of the Child, Ottawa: Supply and Services
Canada, 1991.
Audiovisual:
The Family Violence Prevention Unit of Health Canada
has compiled a collection of more than 90 films and videos on forms
of family violence prevention, including child abuse prevention.
These can be borrowed from the partner libraries of the National
Film Board of Canada.
References and Notes
1. E.E. Whipple and C. Webster-Stratton,
``The role of parental stress in physically abusive families,''
Child Abuse and Neglect, 15(3), 1991, pp. 279-291.
2. K. Rodgers, ``Wife assault: The
findings of a national survey,'' Juristat Service Bulletin,
Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics, March 1994, p. 14.
3. Federal-Provincial Working Group
on Child and Family Services Information, Child Welfare in Canada:
The Role of Provincial and Territorial Authorities in Cases of Child
Abuse, Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada, 1994.
4. Federal-Provincial Working Group
on Child and Family Services Information, Child and Family Services
Annual Statistical Report 1992-93 to 1994-95, Hull: Working
Group on Child and Family Services Information, 1996.
5. Ibid. The number is based on provincial/territorial
data for ``children in care,'' with Quebec figures for ``intermediate
and institutional interventions.''
6. Ontario Association of Children's
Aid Societies Annual Survey, 1983.
7. N. Trocme, D.McPhee, K.K. Tam
and T. Hay, Ontario Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse &
Neglect, Toronto: The Institute for the Prevention of Child
Abuse, 1994.
8. Ontario Association of Children's
Aid Societies Annual Surveys, 1983 to 1992. 1993 data from Trocme
et al., supra note 6.
9. Trocme et al., supra note 6, p.
xi.
10. Trocme et al., supra note 6,
pp. 94-98.
11. E.D. Jones and K. McCurdy, ``The
links between types of maltreatment and demographic characteristics
of children,'' Child Abuse and Neglect, 16(2), 1992, pp.
201-215.
12. Trocme et al., supra note 6,
p. 122.
13. V. Krishnan and K.B. Morrison,
``An ecological model of child maltreatment in a Canadian province,''
Child Abuse and Neglect, 19(1), 1995, pp. 101-113.
14. R.L. Hegar, S.J. Zuravin and
J.G. Orme, ``Factors predicting severity of physical child abuse
injury,'' Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 9(2), 1994,
pp. 170-183.
15. J.A. Weston, M. Colloton, S.
Halsey, S. Covington, J. Gilbert, L. Sorrentino-Kelly
and S.S. Renoud, ``A legacy of violence in nonorganic failure
to thrive,'' Child Abuse and Neglect, 17(6), 1993, pp. 709-714.
16. Canadian Medical Association,
``CMA Policy Summary: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome,'' Canadian Medical
Association Journal, 148(4), 1993, p. 640a.
17. J.M. Soby, Prenatal Exposure
to Drugs and Alcohol: Characteristics and Educational Implication
of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and Cocaine-Polydrug Effects, Springfield,
Il., Charles C. Thomas, 1994.
18. S. Salzinger, R.S. Feldman, M. Hammer
and M. Rosario, ``The effects of physical abuse on children's
social relationships, Child Development, 64(1), 1993, pp.
169-187. R.H. Starr Jr. and D.A. Wolfe (editors), The Effects
of Child Abuse and Neglect: Issues and Research, London, Guildford
Press, 1991.
19. Y.M. Vissing, M.A. Straus, R.J.
Gelles and J.W. Harrop, ``Verbal aggression by parents and psychosocial
problems of children,'' Child Abuse and Neglect, 15(3), 1991,
pp. 223-238.
20. A.H. Claussen and P.M. Critenden,
``Physical and psychological maltreatment: Relations among types
of maltreatment,'' Child Abuse and Neglect, 15(1), 1991,
pp. 5-18.
21. D.G. Dutton and S.D. Hart, ``Evidence
of long-term, specific effects of childhood abuse on criminal behaviour
in men,'' International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative
Criminology, 36(2), 1992, pp. 129-137.
22. The Commonwealth Fund, The
Commonwealth Fund Survey of Women's Health, New York: The Fund,
July 14, 1993, p. 4.
23. J.A. Caliso and J.S. Milner,
``Childhood physical abuse, childhood social support and adult child
abuse potential,'' Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 9(1),
1994, pp. 27-44.
24. L. Gordon, Heroes of Their
Own Lives: The Politics and History of Family Violence, New
York: Viking Penguin, 1989.
This fact sheet was revised by Tom Hay, Ph.D., A2B
Consulting, under contract, with assistance from David Allen, Childhood
and Youth Division, Health Canada.
For further information on family violence prevention
issues, please contact:
National Clearinghouse on Family Violence
Address Locator: 1909D1
Family Violence Prevention Unit
Public Health Agency of Canada
Health Canada
Ottawa, Ontario K1A 1B4
Telephone: (613) 957-2938 or call this toll-free number:
1-800-267-1291
Fax: (613) 941-8930
FaxLink: (613) 941-7285 or toll-free: 1-888-267-1233
TTY/TDD users, (613) 952-6396 or toll-free: 1-800-561-5643
This publication can be made available in/on computer
diskette/large print/audio-cassette/braille,upon request.
September 1990
February 1997 (revised)
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