Chapter 7: Eating, Dieting Hygiene
Healthy eating contributes to physical and emotional well-being which,
in turn, significantly affects many other areas of students' lives. Adolescents
are particularly susceptible to poor eating habits as they assert themselves
and become more independent from parents and teachers. While healthy eating
has been recognized in Canadian elementary school curricula for decades,
it receives little attention in secondary schools. As our society continues
the practice of dining out and using convenience foods at home, it is
particularly important to monitor student eating and body image trends.
The specific food items mentioned in the survey were not intended to
provide a comprehensive picture of young people's eating patterns, but
to provide information on some specific foods that are more or less nutritious.
Food items were selected as being more nutritious because they provide
fibre, vitamins or other important nutrients (fruit, vegetables, low fat
milk, whole wheat breads) or less nutritious if eaten frequently because
they are high in fat, salt and sugar (potato chips, hamburgers, hot dogs,
whole milk).
The questionnaire items on food habits were selected to address frequency
of consumption, rather than food quantity; it was assumed that students
ate average portions on most occasions. Students were asked how often
they eat or drink several foods and drinks. They responded using the categories
"never", "rarely", "at least once a week, but
not every day", "once a day" and "more than once a
day".
A second major nutritional issue concerns dieting. There is widespread
concern about excessive dieting, especially among young females, in Canadian
society. At the same time, there are concerns about the effects of obesity
on long-term health.
Figure 7.1 Students
who ate fruit and vegetables daily, 1998 (%) |
FRUIT |
|
1990 |
1994 |
1998 |
|
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Grade 6 |
77 |
84 |
77 |
82 |
69 |
77 |
Grade 8 |
75 |
79 |
75 |
78 |
65 |
69 |
Grade 10 |
69 |
75 |
70 |
74 |
62 |
65 |
Figure 7.1 (cont'd) Students
who ate fruit and vegetables daily, 1998 (%) |
COOKED VEGETABLES |
|
Male |
Female |
Grade 6 |
44 |
47 |
Grade 8 |
45 |
52 |
Grade 10 |
50 |
55 |
Figure 7.1 (cont'd) Students
who ate fruit and vegetables daily, 1998 (%) |
RAW VEGETABLES |
|
1990 |
1994 |
1998 |
|
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Grade 6 |
52 |
59 |
44 |
52 |
35 |
44 |
Grade 8 |
47 |
55 |
44 |
51 |
34 |
47 |
Grade 10 |
49 |
52 |
39 |
51 |
37 |
45 |
The chapter begins with a focus on healthy eating habits. The consumption
of less-nutritious foods, having breakfast regularly and dieting patterns
are then addressed. Finally, the dental hygiene habits and oral health
of Canadian youth are considered.
Nutritious Foods
Psychosocial correlates of low intake of fruit and vegetables among adolescents
include low family connectedness, dissatisfaction with weight, poor academic
achievement and health-compromising behaviours such as binge eating, substance
abuse and past suicide attempts (Neumark-Sztainer et al., 1998). Although
advertising nutritious foods has increased, the popular media gives less
attention to them than to snack foods. For this section of the report
the response alternatives "once a day" and "more than once
a day" have been combined in the figures under "daily".
Figure 7.1 shows that a greater proportion of females ate fruits and
vegetables daily. In each of Grades 6, 8 and 10, the proportions of both
males and females eating fruit daily declined slightly from 1994 to 1998.
Generally, females ate more nutritious foods than males, except for whole-wheat
breads and low fat milk.
In the 1998 study, students were asked how frequently they eat cooked
vegetables. Daily consumption generally increased across Grades 6 to 10
and higher proportions of females ate cooked vegetables daily. Daily consumption
of raw vegetables has declined over time for all groups. There is no consistent
pattern across the grades, and in most cases differences across the grades
were quite small.
Students were asked about their consumption of whole-wheat or rye bread
in the 1994 and 1998 studies. Slightly more males than females ate wholewheat
breads daily (Figure 7.2). For the Grade 6 students, there was a decline
in the proportions eating whole-wheat or rye bread daily from 1994 to
1998. There was also a slight decline for both males and females from
Grade 6 to Grade 10.
Between two-thirds and three-quarters of each of the grade groups responded
that they drink low fat milk daily. Where gender differences occurred,
proportionally more males were daily low fat milk drinkers. For Grade
6 and Grade 10, low fat milk consumption increased in 1994, but dropped
again in 1998.
Figure 7.2 Students
who ate whole-wheat or rye bread and drank low fat milk daily (%) |
WHOLE-WHEAT OR RYE BREAD |
|
1994 |
1998 |
|
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Grade 6 |
48 |
46 |
47 |
43 |
Grade 8 |
44 |
41 |
43 |
42 |
Grade 10 |
40 |
39 |
42 |
36 |
Figure 7.2(cont'd) Students
who ate whole-wheat or rye bread and drank low fat milk daily (%) |
LOW FAT MILK (2%, 1%, or SKIM) |
|
1990 |
1994 |
1998 |
|
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Grade 6 |
67 |
67 |
76 |
72 |
74 |
68 |
Grade 8 |
73 |
68 |
74 |
74 |
73 |
72 |
Grade 10 |
68 |
65 |
77 |
73 |
75 |
69 |
Figure 7.3 Students who ate/drank
foods high in fats/sodium daily (%) |
FRENCH FRIES |
|
1990 |
1994 |
1998 |
|
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Grade 6 |
12 |
7 |
14 |
9 |
13 |
8 |
Grade 8 |
10 |
7 |
13 |
7 |
11 |
7 |
Grade 10 |
12 |
7 |
12 |
8 |
9 |
6 |
Figure 7.3(cont'd) Students
who ate/drank foods high in fats/sodium daily (%) |
HAMBURGERS/HOT DOGS/SAUSAGES |
|
1990 |
1994 |
1998 |
|
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Grade 6 |
10 |
6 |
12 |
7 |
10 |
6 |
Grade 8 |
8 |
3 |
10 |
4 |
8 |
3 |
Grade 10 |
8 |
3 |
6 |
2 |
6 |
2 |
Figure 7.3(cont'd) Students
who ate/drank foods high in fats/sodium daily (%) |
POTATO CHIPS |
|
1990 |
1994 |
1998 |
|
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Grade 6 |
22 |
15 |
24 |
18 |
22 |
15 |
Grade 8 |
21 |
17 |
25 |
16 |
20 |
13 |
Grade 10 |
18 |
10 |
17 |
12 |
14 |
10 |
Figure 7.3(cont'd) Students
who ate/drank foods high in fats/sodium daily (%) |
WHOLE MILK |
|
1990 |
1994 |
1998 |
|
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Grade 6 |
36 |
33 |
24 |
21 |
19 |
16 |
Grade 8 |
33 |
29 |
24 |
17 |
19 |
14 |
Grade 10 |
37 |
23 |
22 |
13 |
17 |
10 |
Less Nutritious Foods
Daily intake of food with little nutritional value by youth can be harmful
to their physical development (Williams, 1995). Figure 7.3 shows that
a greater proportion of males ate higher salt and high fat/sodium foods
than females. Differences in the proportions of students eating french
fries daily were small across both the three years and the three grades.
There was a decline as grade level increased in the proportion of students
who ate hamburgers, hot dogs or sausages daily. Almost a quarter of the
males in the two younger grades ate potato chips daily and were considerably
more likely to do so than females. Differences across the three survey
years were small. Fewer of the students in Grade 10 ate potato chips daily
than in the earlier two grades.
More males than females in all grades across the three survey years drank
whole milk, with the magnitude of difference between genders increasing
by grade. There has been a sharp decline in the proportion, by about half,
of young people drinking whole milk daily over the three surveys. This
may indicate that the public health message to eat lower fat foods is
being attended to, at least with regard to milk.
Soft drinks and candy/chocolate bars were included as examples of high
sugar foods in young people's diets. Foods containing sugar and caffeine,
such as soft drinks and chocolate, are often taken to increase energy
temporarily. Caffeine is also addictive and affects alertness states.
Across all three grades and all three surveys, higher proportions of boys
than of girls ate candy and drank soft drinks (Figure 7.4). Differences
across surveys in the proportions of boys and girls consuming soft drinks
daily were small and did not change significantly overtime. For boys,
there was a steady increase from grade to grade but for girls, daily drinking
of soft drinks increased from Grade 6 to 8 but levelled off from Grades
8 to 10.
The proportion of students eating candy or chocolate bars was similar
across grades and the three surveys for both males and females.
Approximately one in ten Grade 10 students drank coffee daily. Where
gender differences occurred, males drank more coffee than females. Daily
coffee consumption generally increased as students got older.
Figure 7.4 Students who ate/drank
foods high in sugar/caffeine daily (%) |
SOFT DRINKS |
|
1990 |
1994 |
1998 |
|
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Grade 6 |
47 |
38 |
47 |
37 |
42 |
34 |
Grade 8 |
56 |
44 |
58 |
46 |
56 |
45 |
Grade 10 |
64 |
44 |
61 |
45 |
60 |
44 |
Figure 7.4(cont'd) Students
who ate/drank foods high in sugar/caffeine daily (%) |
CANDY/CHOCOLATES BARS |
|
1990 |
1994 |
1998 |
|
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Grade 6 |
28 |
22 |
32 |
26 |
26 |
22 |
Grade 8 |
30 |
22 |
34 |
28 |
28 |
24 |
Grade 10 |
28 |
18 |
32 |
25 |
25 |
21 |
Figure 7.4(cont'd) Students
who ate/drank foods high in sugar/caffeine daily (%) |
COFFEE |
|
1990 |
1994 |
1998 |
|
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Grade 6 |
7 |
4 |
7 |
4 |
4 |
2 |
Grade 8 |
8 |
4 |
11 |
5 |
7 |
5 |
Grade 10 |
11 |
10 |
12 |
9 |
9 |
9 |
Figure 7.5 Thirteen year
olds who ate chocolate or candy daily by country, 1998 (%) |
|
Male |
Female |
ENG |
67 |
59 |
USA |
51 |
54 |
POL |
51 |
48 |
GER* |
48 |
47 |
SWI |
44 |
40 |
GRE |
43 |
44 |
FRA* |
42 |
45 |
CAN |
28 |
24 |
NOR |
28 |
20 |
DEN |
27 |
27 |
SWE |
27 |
27 |
*France and Germany are represented by regions:
see Chapter 1 for details. |
In comparision to young people in other countries, Canadian and Scandinavian
youth are far less likely to eat sweets daily. While these differences
may reflect greater attention given to healthy eating habits, they may
also reflect cultural differences in the dietary roles of candies and
chocolate. Having a "sweet" for dessert after meals, for example,
is more common in some cultures than others.
Figure 7.6 Students who ate
breakfast-at least juice and toast or cereal-daily, 1998 (%) |
|
Male |
Female |
Grade 6 |
71 |
67 |
Grade 7 |
67 |
54 |
Grade 8 |
61 |
47 |
Grade 9 |
59 |
42 |
Grade 10 |
55 |
41 |
Figure 7.7 Students responses
to "Are you on a diet to lose weight?" 1994 (%) |
|
Male |
Female |
|
No, because my weight is fine |
No, but I do need to lose weight |
Yes |
No, because my weight is fine |
No, but I do need to lose weight |
Yes |
Grade 6 |
78 |
17 |
5 |
69 |
22 |
9 |
Grade 8 |
77 |
19 |
4 |
63 |
26 |
12 |
Grade 10 |
78 |
19 |
3 |
52 |
30 |
18 |
Figure 7.7 (cont'd) Students responses to "Are you on a diet to lose weight?"
1998(%) |
|
Male |
Female |
|
No, because my weight is fine |
No, but I do need to lose weight |
Yes |
No, because my weight is fine |
No, but I do need to lose weight |
Yes |
Grade 6 |
81 |
13 |
6 |
72 |
21 |
7 |
Grade 8 |
79 |
16 |
5 |
60 |
27 |
14 |
Grade 10 |
82 |
14 |
4 |
55 |
28 |
16 |
Breakfast
Breakfast is believed to be a key meal for young people as it prepares
the body and mind for daily activities (Williams, 1995). However, as children
get older they have greater control over what they eat for breakfast and
over whether they eat it at all. A question was asked in 1998 regarding
frequency of eating breakfast each week.
More of the males than the females ate breakfast of at least juice and
toast/cereal daily in each of the five grades with the difference reaching
as high as 17 percent among Grade 9 students (Figure 7.6). In Grade 6,
almost 70 percent of all students ate breakfast daily. For males, there
was a consistent decline in the proportion who ate breakfast daily as
the grade level increased. For females, there was a much steeper decline
that levelled off in Grades 9 and 10 at 40 percent. The gap between the
proportion of boys and girls who start the day with breakfast tends to
widen with age.
Dieting
Youth who develop unhealthy eating practices due to distorted perceptions
of body weight are at increased risk of developing nutritional deficiencies
(Page, 1991). The respondents were asked if they were on a diet or if
they thought they needed to lose weight and their responses are summarized
in Figure 7.7. More girls than boys thought they needed to lose weight
and this proportion increased over grade levels. Many more females were
on a diet, with almost half of the Grade 10 girls indicating they were
either on a diet or needed to lose weight. For boys, there was little
change, as grade increased, in the proportions of those on a diet or feeling
that they should be dieting. However, the proportion of females on a diet
and those feeling they needed to lose weight increased with grade level.
Differences between the 1994 and 1998 surveys were small with few observable
trends.
Figure 7.8 shows that, for males, the proportion dieting or feeling that
they need to lose weight increased from Grade 6 to 7 and then gradually
decreased from Grade 7 to 10. For females, the increase was much greater
from Grade 6 to Grade 9 with a levelling off between Grades 9 and 10.
Figure 7.8 Students who
were on a diet or felt they needed to lose weight, 1998 (%) |
|
Male |
Female |
Grade 6 |
19 |
29 |
Grade 7 |
24 |
36 |
Grade 8 |
21 |
41 |
Grade 9 |
20 |
47 |
Grade 10 |
18 |
45 |
Figure 7.9 Fifteen year olds
who were on a diet by country, 1998 (%) |
|
Male |
Female |
NOR |
8 |
28 |
USA |
7 |
25 |
GRE |
8 |
24 |
FRA* |
5 |
21 |
POL |
5 |
21 |
ENG |
3 |
18 |
GER* |
6 |
17 |
CAN |
4 |
16 |
DEN |
3 |
16 |
SWI |
3 |
16 |
SWE |
3 |
8 |
*France and Germany are represented by regions: see
Chapter 1 for details. |
While the proportion of Canadian 15-year old girls who are dieting may
seem high, it can be readily seen that the proportion is higher in many
of the comparison countries. Gender differences in dieting behaviour were
pronounced in all countries.
Figure 7.10 Students
who brush their teeth two or more times a day (%) |
|
1990 |
1994 |
1998 |
|
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Grade 6 |
51 |
68 |
55 |
66 |
55 |
68 |
Grade 8 |
52 |
76 |
58 |
75 |
56 |
73 |
Grade 10 |
54 |
78 |
59 |
79 |
57 |
80 |
Figure 7.11 Students
who flossed their teeth at least weekly (%) |
|
1990 |
1994 |
1998 |
|
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Grade 6 |
34 |
46 |
48 |
58 |
55 |
66 |
Grade 8 |
31 |
42 |
44 |
55 |
53 |
62 |
Grade 10 |
27 |
41 |
34 |
52 |
44 |
60 |
Dental Hygiene
Students are often motivated by social reasons rather than dental health
reasons to observe good dental hygiene (MacGregor, 1994). Dental hygiene
was addressed by asking how frequently the respondents brushed and flossed
their teeth.
Girls were much more likely than boys to practise regular dental hygiene
(Figure 7.10). More females (approximately 80%) than males (approximately
60%) at each grade level across the three surveys brushed their teeth
two or more times a day. More of the girls also flossed their teeth at
least weekly (Figure 7.11). Across the three surveys, there was a substantial
increase in the proportions of boys and girls flossing weekly at each
of the three grade levels. Flossing appears to be becoming a more common
practice, although it decreases as grade increases.
Figure 7.12 Eleven year
olds who brushed their teeth two or more times a day by country, 1998
(%) |
|
Male |
Female |
SWE |
82 |
88 |
DEN |
80 |
85 |
SWI |
78 |
84 |
GER* |
69 |
82 |
ENG |
62 |
76 |
USA |
65 |
75 |
NOR |
65 |
72 |
POL |
52 |
70 |
FRA* |
54 |
69 |
CAN |
55 |
67 |
GRE |
42 |
53 |
*France
and Germany are represented
by regions: see Chapter 1 for details |
Canadian youth were less likely to brush their teeth twice a day or more
than youth in most other countries.Even though a significant proportion
of Canadian girls brushed twice daily, their peers were ahead in all countries
except Greece.
Summary
It was difficult to measure dietary practices accurately because it was
necessary to use frequency of consumption rather than actual quantities,
but the findings have general relevance. Over three-quarters of the respondents
indicated they ate fruits and vegetables daily in Grade 6, but this was
down to less than 70 percent by Grade 10. There was a worrisome decline
in daily fruit and vegetable eating over the three surveys. This pattern
was also evident in the intake of raw vegetables. Girls were slightly
more likely to eat vegetables and fruits than boys, and boys were more
likely to eat hamburgers, hot dogs, french fries and potato chips. Over
two-thirds of the respondents were found to drink low fat milk daily.
A surprisingly high proportion of students by Grade 10 indicated they
did not have breakfast every day. Just under half the boys and over three-fifths
of the girls were in this category.
Far more girls than boys indicated they thought they needed to lose weight
with the proportion increasing from grade to grade. There was little difference
between the 1994 and 1998 surveys, but the substantial number of young
women on a diet suggests a real concern.
Canadian youth rank behind those in other countries in terms of the proportion
who brush their teeth twice or more daily. Girls are more likely than
boys to brush their teeth twice or more per day and to floss weekly. Most
brush at least once a day, but just over half of the boys brush twice
a day. There is little difference from grade to grade and over the three
surveys.
Overall, eating patterns have changed slightly with reduced consumption
of more nutritious foods and increased intake of less nutritious foods.
Dieting, although still particularly high among girls, did not change
over the three surveys. Finally, the proportion of youth who floss at
least weekly has increased sharply through the 1990s to over 50 percent,
but Canadian youth are well behind other countries in the proportion who
brush their teeth at least twice a day.
|