Native Spirituality

Description

Unique spiritual belief systems developed among the Aboriginal peoples of North America over a period of thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans, perhaps beginning with, or even preceding, the earliest migrations of First Nations to this continent. This long period of evolution of spiritual beliefs and practices among peoples who were differentiated by many tribal and national cultures naturally lacked uniformity. In Canada today, there are at least 56 distinct native traditions, including that of the Inuit of the North, and there are many more south of the Canada–US border. Each of them developed spiritual belief systems that guided morality and personal relationships with the Creator. With time and the stimulus of trade and defence alliances between tribes and nations, a number of features of the various spiritual belief systems and practices achieved widespread commonality in North America. With the arrival of Europeans, native North Americans found new ways to define their relationship with God. Today, the majority are Christian. According to the results of Canada’s 1991 census, only 10,840 native Canadians claimed to be followers of the traditional beliefs of their people, out of 1,002,945 Canadians of North American Indian, Inuit or Métis ancestry. Yet, First Nation elders, the RCMP and others who have observed the issue closely relate that many more First Nations members are incorporating some traditional beliefs and practices in their religious life or turning entirely to their heritage to express their spiritual needs.

Native spiritual traditions are passed down orally through generations. Although North American Indian traditions vary considerably across the continent, they still have much in common. Central to many cultures is a belief that the Great Spirit created the Earth and its people. Others believe that humans came from a sky-world, that the Earth is the Mother of all life, and that plants and animals have spirits that must be respected, honoured and cared for. It is a holistic concept of not only human life but also the life of the world and all things in it, both animate and inanimate, wherein all things are related and interconnected through a “circle of life.” The concept is reflected and explained by the shaman’s medicine wheel.

The medicine wheel demonstrates how all life is interconnected and embarked on in a circular journey. The four cardinal directions, each of which has a guiding spirit and unique attributes, symbolize the stages of the life journey. The East, direction of the daily birth of the sun, represents a child’s birth and first few years of life. The South relates to childhood and intellectual growth. The West is symbolic of adulthood and introspection. And the North represents the elder phase of life and the spiritual aspects of it. The centre of the wheel is symbolic of Mother Earth and the Creator and their role in the beginning and continuation of life.

The spiritual traditions of the Inuit people of Canada have mostly been superseded by Christianity, though some early forms of ritual are still observed as part of Christian worship services and political and cultural gatherings. As with most Aboriginal cultures based in hunting and gathering economies, Inuit spiritual beliefs were often observed through rituals that related to food production. The Inuit believed in Naarjuk, the supreme being who made the Earth and the sea, and in Nuliajuk, the goddess or spirit of the sea. Spirits represented primary food sources; for example, ijirak is a caribou spirit. Under the leadership and guidance of the angatkuk (shaman), such rituals were performed before and after hunts — prayers of supplication asking Nuliajuk to bless the hunt for seal or fish and thanking her afterward for success. Today, some ceremonial aspects of the rituals are observed through the medium of Christian prayer and worship services and in community festivals and gatherings, largely as a commemoration of an ancient culture and lifestyle.

Many North American Indian traditions revolve around spiritual and personal development, an understanding of the Great Spirit and Mother Earth, and an appreciation of the nature of life and surrounding environment. The rituals and ceremonies described in the following sections provide a broader base for understanding the means through which Native Spirituality is practised.

Religious Elements

Scriptural and Doctrinal Sources

Native spiritual and cultural traditions are passed down orally. First Nations have generally avoided writing down details of rituals in the belief that doing so counteracts the very meaning of a ceremony. Because core beliefs traditionally have not been preserved in writing but are widespread in consistent form, it is probable that they have existed in or near their present form for hundreds, if not thousands, of years. The oral system of preservation of cultural and spiritual practices and beliefs relies greatly on the shaman as the repository of knowledge. The shaman must undergo a long period of training and, in turn, must teach his successors the old ways thoroughly to ensure continuation of belief systems through the generations.

Rituals

Thanksgiving ceremonies: People participate in these ceremonies individually and in groups. Individually, a person gives thanks every day to the Great Spirit or Creator for all life. The person rises at sunrise, is thankful for a new day, and thanks Mother Earth for all that she has provided. At ceremonies for the community, the spirits of plants and animals that have been used for food, clothing or other products are thanked for allowing their use. Such ceremonies may take place more than once a year.
Pipe ceremony: The pipe is used both individually and in groups for prayer and ceremonial purposes. Participants gather in a circle. A braid of sweetgrass is burned to purify the area and those present, to make a sacred place for the spirits to visit. Tobacco or kinnickkinnick, a traditional mixture of bearberry and wild herbs or red willow shavings, is smoked so that prayers can be made to the Great Spirit or requests made of the spirits. The pipe may also be smoked to open other meetings or ceremonies. When not in use, the bowl and stem are separated and carried by one individual, the pipe holder.
Giveaway: This ceremony, a stand-alone event east of the Rocky Mountains but often the purpose of a potlatch among coastal nations of British Columbia, is held to celebrate a special event, such as a birth or wedding, or to commemorate a death. It is the occasion to give gifts of blankets, beadwork or crafts to family, friends or visitors. Giveaways usually include ceremonial dancing and singing.
Potlatch: Practised by First Nations of the west coast, the potlatch is an organized meeting for special ceremonies, such as name-giving, birth, rites of passage, treaties and weddings. Giveaways are usually the main feature of the modern potlatch. As a historical note, the Government of British Columbia banned the potlatch in 1887, mistakenly believing that the giveaway aspect of the ceremony, with participants often giving away all their belongings in an excess of zeal, was a cause of poverty among coastal nations. In reality, the potlatch was a principal cultural, social, religious and political institution of the coastal peoples and important to their ability to maintain solidarity and a sense of nationality. The ban was finally repealed in 1951.

Moral Code

Although there is no specific moral code, some aspects of belief and behaviour are common or widespread:

The Earth is understood to have intrinsic value, and humans must care for it as its custodian.
All living things and objects have a spirit.
When taking the life of a plant or animal of the Earth, a person must pay respect to the spirit of that plant or animal.
Gifts of sacred plants such as tobacco should be made to the plant or animal spirits when such a life is taken for use or consumption.
Prayers of thanks or blessings should be made to the Creator every day for all living things.
Ceremonies of thanks should take place regularly, and all should participate.
Families are valued greatly, including extended families and other individuals who may be considered family.
Respect must be shown to every individual, especially adults and children.
Gifts should be given to show respect or to seal an agreement.
While individuals control their own behaviour, they should do so in consideration of the community in which they live.
A person should strive to be good, and this can be achieved in part through participation in ceremonies.
All sacred objects must be treated as such by anyone touching them.
All individual spiritual beliefs should be respected.

Venues of Ritual Performance or Ceremonies

Ceremonies and rituals take place in several types of structures or enclosures:

Sweat lodge: Although First Nations construct the lodges in various styles, some features are common. Usually, they are igloo-shaped, about 1.5 metres high and large enough for eight people to be seated in a circle on the ground. They are erected on previously unused ground. The lodge is constructed of bent willow or other softwood poles tied together with vines. The exterior is covered in hides or blankets to keep all light out. Rocks are heated in a fire pit outside the lodge, then brought in and placed on consecrated ground in the centre. Water is poured on the hot rocks to produce steam. An elder conducts the ceremony, and no one may enter the lodge without his or her permission. A pipe may be shared around the circle as part of the ceremony.
Arbors may be constructed as shelters at pow-wows or to represent the tree of life, which is symbolically represented by a pole at the centre of the arbor.
Nations of the west coast traditionally built cedar plank “big houses” as places of residence for extended families and gatherings; in the present day such structures may be used for public gatherings and potlatches.
In earlier times among eastern nations, some tribes built longhouses as extended family residences or for ceremonies taking place in the winter. Today they are erected for special occasions and spiritual ceremonies. They are also used as a meeting place for the 50 hereditary chiefs of the Iroquois Confederacy.
For certain ceremonies and meetings, participants form a group circle, in which all have equal place of seating, on previously undisturbed ground.

Devotional Practices and Services

Healing circles: These are meetings similar to council meetings. The group gathers in a circle to heal physical, emotional and spiritual wounds. A symbolic object, often an eagle feather, may be given to a person who wishes to speak, and then it is passed around the circle in sequence to others who wish to speak.
Shamans may conduct healing ceremonies. Rattles are often used in the ritual.
Sweat-lodge ceremonies: These take place in specially constructed lodges and may last from one to four days. They may be held as unique events or in relation to an associated ritual or ceremony. Their purpose is purification, healing, and thanksgiving to the Great Spirit or Creator.
Pow-wow: A pow-wow is a gathering of people, which may be large or small, that is for socializing and celebrating. During the pow-wow, feasts and gift-giving take place, and special announcements are made.

Clergy, Organization and Government

Native spiritual traditions and practices do not have an organized clergy or government; however, individuals such as elders and shamans play specific leadership roles that are important to the tradition.
Elders and shamans may be men or women.
Elders are determined by age, wisdom and life experience. Occasionally, a younger individual who has gained exceptional wisdom and life experience may become an elder, but this is not common.
Shamans function as physical and spiritual healers and perform ceremonies specifically for healing. They possess special knowledge of medicines and herbs that are appropriate for use in certain conditions.

Propagation of the Faith

Native spiritual leaders travel widely to perform or assist in rituals or celebrations. Through these events, many are exposed to spiritual traditions, and Aboriginal Canadians who have not previously done so are encouraged by their participation to return to their spiritual traditions.
Public awareness and understanding of native spiritual traditions is also gained when pow-wows or other rituals or celebrations take place before the public, but this is not done for the purpose of proselytizing.

Major Celebrations and Observances

Days of Regular Observance

None.

Special Observances

Sundance: The sundance ceremony is celebrated by First Nations in and surrounding the Prairies. It is usually held in June or July at the time of the full moon. Tradition says that it began when a warrior experienced a vision quest that resulted in his understanding a new way to pray to the Great Spirit, as many no longer attached great importance to the pipe ceremony. Its purpose is the self-dedication of participant warriors to the Great Spirit. The dancers must take part in four annual sundances to prepare themselves for the final stage of the rite. Four days before the ceremony, the dancers prepare by purifying themselves, at times in a sweat lodge, by meditating and by collecting ceremonial items of dress to use in the sundance. The sundance itself takes another four days, and the dancer fasts during this time. In the ultimate stage of the rite, dancers pierce the muscles of chest or back with sharp sticks and attach these to a central pole with rawhide thongs. At the conclusion of the dance about the pole, they free themselves by forcibly pulling free of the thongs, causing the tearing of flesh in the process. This frees the dancers from ignorance. After the sundance, another sweat-lodge ceremony is held.
Naming ceremonies: First Nations have different rituals for naming ceremonies. A common aspect is the significance of the name itself. Different from the birth name, which normally identifies a person for legal purposes, the name given to a child or adult in the naming ceremony is a traditional one that has particular significance to the individual, reflecting his or her personality or perhaps a particularly noteworthy deed. The name is usually bestowed by others who recognize some particular aspect of the person’s life, character or personality that should be marked by a significant name. A name may be changed several times in a lifetime.
Mid-winter feasts: This feast is held around the winter solstice and is a celebration of the upcoming season of spring.
Vision quest: Vision quests are generally held by the Algonkian and Sioux Nations and nations on the Interior Plateau. The person embarking on a vision quest goes to a sacred location and fasts for four days while seeking a vision to provide direction in life. Preparation is made throughout the preceding year. Parents or elders may advise a youth to take on a vision quest. The elder may then interpret the vision.

Dress Requirements

Long, uncut hair is common for both men and women and is considered sacred by some First Nations. Hair may be braided. Among men, three braided strands, signifying the body, mind and spirit, are common. While hair length and style are not uniform among First Nations, braids or uncut hair generally signify that the style worn is of spiritual and cultural importance to the individual and reinforces his or her sense of identity as a member of a particular First Nation.
Medicine pouches may be worn when an individual wishes to call on the protection of the spirits of the four cardinal directions. An elder prescribes the contents of the pouch, which may include the four sacred plants — cedar, tobacco, sage and sweetgrass — or possibly kinnickkinnick. Other sacred herbs or animal parts may be included in a pouch; for example, diamond willow fungus, dried or powdered beaver testicles, and buffalo droppings are common items. They will usually be burned when the owner wishes to invoke the power of the spirits. A sacred pouch must not be touched by anyone but the person wearing it or the elder, for doing so would be a violation of the religious sensibilities of the wearer and a desecration of the contents. If the contents must be examined for law enforcement, the examiner should be male, as it is commonly believed that a menstruating woman has more spiritual power than a man and her power would cancel the power of the medicine pouch, whether she follows native spiritual traditions or not. If examination by the RCMP is required, the practice is to ask the pouch owner to display the contents rather than for the RCMP member to open the pouch directly.
The four sacred herbs are sometimes worn pinned to clothing.
Elders may have additional sacred items or badges pinned to their clothing or worn in other fashion. Items will vary depending on the particular tribal tradition.
Certain clothing may be required for celebrations.
Men’s traditional dress may include clothing decorated with beads or quillwork, colourful fringes and eagle feathers.
Women’s traditional dress may include long or knee-length dresses decorated with beads, ribbons or shells. Belts, moccasins and leggings may be worn, as well as a fancy shawl. Jewellery and hair accessories may be worn.
Sacred objects that are also needed when ceremonial dress is required include shields, weapons, staffs, medicine wheels, eagle feathers or wings, and fans.

Dietary Requirements

Fasting is one way for native Canadians to take part in a spiritual experience. A fast may occur over one or several days. An elder may provide guidelines for the fast and ensure that the health of the individual is adequate for fasting conditions. A physician may also be asked to assess the person’s health. During the fast, both food and drink are renounced.
Certain rituals or celebrations may require specific foods, as they have a symbolic importance for the ritual or ceremony. These foods vary between tribal traditions.

Medical and Health Requirements

At times of sickness, rattles are used to call the spirit of life to assist in healing the affected individual.
Rattles may also be shaken during a sweat-lodge ceremony to call the spirits of the four cardinal directions to assist in physical or spiritual healing.
A sick person may wish to burn tobacco, sweetgrass or other sacred herbs as an aid to healing.

Death and Burial

Funeral and mourning practices vary among different First Nations and individual families. The large majority of First Nations people who are Christian usually prefer the funeral and burial practices particular to their church. Those who follow native spiritual traditions, and some who incorporate aspects of these in Christian funerals, may observe some or all of the general practices noted below. The practices listed are specific to First Nations of the linguistic groups indicated.

Algonkian Peoples

A person who has followed the Path of Life may gain admission to the Land of Souls.
Interment takes place four days after death.
After interment, a spirit house is built and a spirit plate is offered to house and feed the spirit, which may remain after death while preparing to depart to the Land of Souls.
A person’s personal possessions are buried with the body. They include a medicine bundle, a bowl and spoon with some corn, tobacco and a pipe if the person had one. This is so that the soul may partake in the Festival of Souls, which welcomes them to the Land of Souls.
For four days after the burial, family and community members keep a fire burning on the grave mound. During this time the soul travels to the Land of Souls.
The family mourns for one year.

Iroquoian Peoples

The Iroquois Confederacy comprises the Mohawk, the Onondaga, the Seneca, the Oneida and the Cayuga First Nations.
The Great Law of Peace provides guidelines for death and burial practices.
Words are given to use at the funeral. The soul is told to go to the Creator, while the attendees are told to mourn, showing restraint and avoiding gossip and idle behaviour.
One year is the suggested period of mourning; however, 10 days is an acceptable period for adhering to strict mourning practices. A child less than three days old is mourned for only five days.
After 10 days, those mourning are assembled again for a feast, released from their responsibilities of mourning, and thanked for their assistance in specific duties.

People of the Interior Plateau

When the person dies, a sacred fire is lit.
The person’s clothing is burned on the fire, and all possessions are given away (some may have been willed to certain individuals).
For three days and three nights, a wake is held. Children are buried in the morning of the fourth day; adults, in the afternoon.
Families grieve for one year, and they may cut their hair.
A memorial feast takes place one year after the death, ending the period of mourning. At the feast, the family gives away items to those who helped them during the year of mourning.

Coastal Peoples

Generally, Christian burial practices are followed; however, traditional songs may be incorporated into a funeral service. Rattles may also be shaken.
Family members may cut their hair.
After a year of mourning, there is a feast to honour the person who died, and a spirit plate of food is set out for the deceased.

Inuit

The Inuit generally follow Christian practices.

Sources of Additional Information

http://www.arctic-travel.com/chapters/ spiritpage.html — The Nunavut Handbook: Spirituality.

http://www.rcmp.ca/ccaps/spirit_e.htm — RCMP Native Spirituality Guide.

http://www.religioustolerance.org/nataspir.htm — website with information about Native American spirituality and a number of references to other sites.

http://www.afn.ca/ — official website of the Assembly of First Nations.

Assembly of First Nations
1 Nicholas Street
Suite 1002
Ottawa, ON K1N 7B7
Phone: (613) 241-6789

http://www.tapirisat.ca/ — official website of Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, Canada’s national Inuit organization.

Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami
170 Laurier Avenue West
Suite 510
Ottawa, ON K1P 5V5
Phone: (613) 238-8181

Table of Contents