Japanese Canadians in Canadian History
Les Canadiens d'origine japonaise dans l 'Histoire canadienne

Adachi, Ken and Iwaasa, David. (1978, for compilation).
Two Monographs on Japanese Canadians.
Daniels, Roger.
New York. Arno Press.
0-405-11304-8.

This book contains two separate, independently written accounts of the history of Japanese Canadians in Canada, specifically in British Columbia and Alberta. Both Ken Adachi and David Iwaasa, chronicle the experience by documenting events from the time of the earliest arrival, through the war years, to their present time(1958). Adachi deals with this history in BC, detailing the internment camps and POW camps, while Iwaasa presents the history in Alberta, focusing on the farm working camps. Both stress the importance of this history for future generations, and suggest that further studies in this area should be undertaken.

Adachi, Ken. (1991).
The Enemy That Never Was: A History of the Japanese Canadians.
Toronto. McClelland & Stewart Inc.
0-7710-0722-1.

Ken Adachi's historical study of racism in Canada towards those of Japanese ancestry spans almost a century, from 1877 to 1975. He focuses on Japanese immigration, the Japanese Canadian community organization and the forced evacuation and relocation during the second world war. Also included, is an afterword by Roger Daniels that documents the efforts of the Japanese Canadian community post 1975, to gain redress for their unjustified internment and dispossession during World War II. More than four decades later, their struggles successfully lead to the Canadian Government's formal apology and to the Japanese Canadian Redress agreement of 1988.

Berger, Thomas R. (1982).
Fragile Freedoms: Human Rights and Dissent in Canada.
Canada. Irwin Publishing, Inc.
0-7720-1377-2.

This book is a history of human rights in Canada, specifically focusing on the struggles, victories and defeats of minority groups and dissenters. Berger considers these struggles Canada's struggles, and the successes Canada's successes. Fundamental to this belief is the author's strong stance that despite the human rights violations which have occurred throughout Canada's history, one consistent thread throughout Canada's history is the idea of tolerance, as outlined in the Constitution and as echoed through the Canadians who have consistently spoken out in favour of tolerance and human rights. The book proceeds by recounting the major human rights offences in Canada's history, including the experiences of the Acadians, the Métis, the Japanese Canadians, political and religious minorities and the First Nations Peoples. Also included is a reproduction of the main human rights sections of the Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms.

Boyko, John. (1995).
Last Steps to Freedom: The Evolution of Canadian Racism.
J. Gordon Schillingford Publishing Inc.
1-896239-40-4

The primary purpose of this book is to present an overview of the evolution of systemic racism in Canada. Specifically, the experiences of Native Canadians, Chinese Canadians, Black Canadians, Jewish Canadians, Japanese Canadians and Ukrainian Canadians are chronicled. Thereafter, the author presents an analysis of the various forms of racism, from state sanctioned cultural genocide to discriminatory policies. Boyko insists that in order for systemic racism to be overcome, Canadians must reflect truthfully on the past, and recognise the achievements and contributions of each of these six victimised groups. The book concludes with a chapter suggesting how to build a non-racist future.

Broadfoot, Barry. (1977).
Years of Sorrow, Years of Shame: The Story of the Japanese Canadians in World War II.
Toronto. Doubleday Canada Limited.
0-385-12550-X.

Barry Broadfoot chronicles the history of the Japanese Canadians in WW II, as well as their arrival in Canada, and dispersal after the war, through the use of extensive oral histories. The end result is a detailed history of the Japanese in Canada from 1877 into the future, with the benefit of the story being told largely in the words of survivors. Thus, issues of racism and discrimination are addressed, and no words are minced in the telling of the actions of the Federal government and the people of Canada.

Canadian Human Rights Commission.
Canadian Human Rights Landmarks.
Canadian Human Rights Commission.

This report consists of a description of a series of landmark events in Human Rights in Canada. Included topics are First Nations Peoples rights, religious rights, Black Canadians, women's rights, immigrants rights, Japanese Canadians, Chinese Canadians, Jewish Canadians, Gay and Lesbian Rights, disabled persons rights, and employment equity.

Canadian Labour Congress. (1993, February).
Building Union Solidarity, Anti-Racism and the Activist, 1)Participant Readings
and Resource Materials, 2) Participant Manual, 3) Instructor Notes.
Ottawa. Canadian Labour Congress, Educational Services.

This is a course toolkit that includes readings, resources, instructor notes, manual and exercises, with the intent to educate participants about racism in the workplace and to encourage applying the knowledge. The kit also addresses issues of harassment and aboriginal rights.

Carrothers, W.A.; Reid, Helen R.Y; Young, Charles H. (1938).
The Japanese Canadians.
H.A. Innis.
Toronto. The University of Toronto Press.
0-405-11300-5.

Written in an anthropological style this book outlines the history of Japanese Canadians in Canada, from the time of their first visits to North America, until the late 1930's. Included is an account of the immigration and settlement patterns, as well as a description of population and commercial activities. In addition, there is an overview of relations between Japanese Canadians and "White" Canadians, and a description of the social problems in the Japanese settlements. The second aspect of the book deals with what is termed "Oriental standards of living", explaining both Japanese and Chinese Canadians standard of living in British Columbia. There is an attempt to account, and sympathize, for the position of Japanese and Chinese Canadians in Canada, but this presentation is very much informed by the prejudices of the time.

Driedger, Leo. (1996).
Multi-Ethnic Canada: Identities & Inequalities.
Toronto. Oxford University Press Canada.
0-19-541161-7.

This book begins with the premise that the idea of a unitary, homogenous ethnic society is both misguided and out-of date in industrial urban societies. The author undertakes a theoretical study of multiculturalism in an attempt to arrive at a cohesive, conceptual framework for multiculturalism studies. He proposes a broad and multidisciplinary approach which incorporates perspectives drawn from sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics, political science and history. In addition to its theoretical praxis, Driedger's book, rich in statistical data, explores 4 major themes; 1) Demographics, 2) Identity, 3) Stratification, and 4) Human Rights. The integration of these main areas leads to a fuller understanding of the implications of multiculturalism in Canadian society today.

Enomoto, Randy (ed.). (1993).
Homecoming '92 - Where the Heart Is.
Enomoto, Randy (ed.).
Winnipeg. National Association of Japanese Canadians.
0-9696587-1-0.

This book chronicles the reunion of four generations of Japanese Canadians in Vancouver, fifty years after the war time internment, and expulsion from BC. An overview of the internment and the second uprooting is presented, as well as other issues arising from this event, such as intermarriage, human rights and deportation to Japan. In addition there is a section dealing with aging Japanese Canadians and the specific problems they face. Concludes with a series of workshops in Japanese. Each section is presented from the particular viewpoint of the speaker, representing a diversity of peoples and experiences.

Fukushima, Michael (director) and Pettigrew, Bill (producer). (1993).
Minoru: Memory of Exile.
Canada. National Film Board of Canada.
NFB 113C 9192 095

Michael Fukushima documents the true-life story of his father's experience as a young Nissei child growing-up during World War II. His story is one of many Japanese Canadians who were forcibly evacuated and relocated to internment camps under the racist war-time policy of Prime Minister Mackenzie King, supported by most Canadians at the time. The video relays the way in which Japanese Canadians were treated as "enemy aliens" in a country that they called home. With animation by Michael Fukushima and narration by the protagonist himself, Minoru, this tale of exile documents both the personal story of the Fukushima family while presenting the experience of Japanese Canadians more generally during this period of overt racism in Canada's history.

Gesensway, Deborah & Roseman, Mindy. (1987).
Beyond Words: Images from America's Concentration Camps.
Ithaca and London. Cornell University Press.
0-8014-1919-0.

This book reveals a sampling of Japanese American art created behind the barbed wire fences of America's concentration camps during the second world war. In total, 77 paintings, drawings, and sketches, tell the stories of life in the camps by those who lived in them for up to a four year period. Accompanying these works are personal testimonies by some of the artists as well as a summary of events surrounding evacuation and relocation in an effort to provide a historical context.

Government of Canada & National Association of Japanese Canadians. (1988).
Terms of Agreement Between the Government of Canada and the National
Association of Japanese Canadians.
Ottawa. Government of Canada.

Canada acknowledges of injustice committed against Japanese Canadians. The redress agreement sets out the conditions whereby the Government of Canada makes restitution to the Japanese Canadian community through individual and community compensation.

Ito, Roy. (1984).
We Went to War. The Story of the Japanese Canadians Who Served During the
First and Second World Wars.
Etobicoke. S-20 and Nisei Veterans Association.
0-9694693-1-4.

This book gives a detailed account of Japanese Canadians who served during the first and second World War. By prefacing the story with the history of Japanese Canadians in Canada, and telling the story through personal accounts of Japanese Canadian soldiers and volunteers, the author presents a detailed overview of Japanese Canadian involvement in World War I and II. There is also a detailed account of the racism and discrimination that the Japanese Canadian soldiers overcame in order to serve Canada during the wars.

Jones, Dallas and Shelly, Leon C. (producers). (1945).
Of Japanese Descent.
Canada. National Film Board of Canada.
NFB 113C 9145 064.

This 1945 propaganda film was produced to portray life in the Japanese-Canadian internment camps as enjoyable and productive. The film documents life in some of the interior areas of British Columbia, where approximately 23,000 individuals of Japanese ancestry, including Japanese nationals, naturalized Japanese Canadians and canadian-born Japanese Canadians were sent to live in labour and other internment camps. The film presents smiling Japanese, hard at work in building new settlements while the narration points to the dubious ways in which the government is portrayed as acting in favour of the internees.

Kitagawa, Muriel; Roy Miki (ed.). (1985).
This Is My Own: Letters to Wes & Other Writings on Japanese Canadians -
Vancouver. Talonbooks.
0-88922-230-4.

This is a collection of material concerning and written by a Japanese Canadian uprooted during WW II, starting with the private letters Muriel Kitagawa wrote to her brother Wes Fujiwara. The essays, letters and photographs tell of the social disruption and living conditions of the Japanese Canadians that were evacuated and dispossessed from the west coast by the Canadian government

Kobayashi, Addie. (1998).
Exiles In Our Own Country: Japanese Canadians in Niagara.
Richmond Hill. Nikkei Network of Niagara.
0-9683236-0-X

This historical scrapbook and collection of narratives provides readers with a highly personalized account of the forced uprooting of Japanese Canadians from British Colombia in the 1940s, in addition to an overview of their settlement into the Niagara peninsula -- successive waves of settlement which have spanned over 50 years. All nineteen narratives (organised in interview format) are told by Niagara residents of Japanese descendance. This collection is rich in photos and newspaper clippings. It also includes both a resource section and a glossary of terms.

 

Kobayaski, Cassandra & Miki, Roy (eds.). (1989).
Spirit of Redress: Japanese Canadians in Conference.
Vancouver. JC Publication, Japanese Canadian Studies Society and the National Association
of Japanese Canadians.
0-9694168-0-6.

This is the print version of the "Back to the Future Conference", May 16-17 1987, which was based on the concept that it is possible to use past knowledge to both heal the community which has suffered from the internment, as well as building a strong community for the future. The book is divided in three main sections, each having several speakers. The first section deals with a general overview of human rights violations which have occurred in the past, as well as suggestions for preserving human rights in the future. The second section deals with the specific topic of aging, and the effect that dispersing the community has on the elderly. The final section looks to the future of the Japanese Canadian community by addressing three timely issues, Identity, Leadership and Intermarriage.

Kogawa, Joy. (1992).
Itsuka.
Toronto. Penguin Books Canada Ltd.
0-14-016988-1.

In the novel that mirrors true life events, the protagonist Naomi is haunted by her memories of her childhood growing up in the World War II period of Japanese Canadian evacuation and internment. In taking the advice of her aunt, Naomi tries to reconcile her childhood fragility by joining in the struggle for Japanese Canadian redress.

Kogawa, Joy. (1986).
Naomi's Road.
Toronto. Stoddart Publishing Co. Limited.
0-7737-5769-4.

This is the fictional story of Naomi Nakane, a young Japanese-Canadian girl. World War II is shown through her eyes, as well as the injustices that force her family to uproot and live in an internment camp. It is Joy Kogawa's first book for children.

Kogawa, Joy. (1981).
Obasan.
Toronto. Penguin Books Canada Ltd.
0-14-006777-9.

The author tells the fictional story of five year old Naomi, who along with the other members of her family is labeled an enemy alien after the bombing of Pearl Harbor. Separated from her mother, Naomi is raised by the strength of her aunt, Obasan. Years later Naomi, now a woman, remembers her community's persecution.

 

Lang, Catherine. (1996).
O-Bon in Chimunesu: A Community Remembered.
Vancouver. Arsenal Pulp Press.
1-55152-036-2.

This book is a collection of personal narratives by Japanese-Canadians concerning their lives as residents of the town of Chemainus, British Columbia prior to internment. The author includes pictures and stories to tell the tale of a thriving community and of its members coming together decades later to preserve its memory.

Le Projet centenaire canadien-japonais. (1978).
Un rêve de richesse: Les Japonais au Canada 1877-1977.
Vancouver, et Toronto. Le Projet centenaire canadien-japonais.
0-9690708-0-2.

Ce volume trilingue, rédigé en français, en anglais et en japonais, est le résultat d'une exposition photographique, tournée au Canada et au Japon à la fin des années 70. Les auteurs tentent de présenter, à l'aide d'innombrables photos et à travers des entrevues, un survol de l'historique des Canadiens d'origine japonaise. Surtout, l?oeuvre est axée sur la période de l'internement et de la délocalisation qui a profondément marqué, d'une façon ou d'une autre, tout Canadien d?origine japonaise.

Lerman, Jeanette (director) Koenig, Wolf (producer). (1975).
Enemy Alien.
Canada. National Film Board of Canada.
NFB 113C 0175 196.

This 1975 film chronicles the history of the Japanese Canadians, including immigration, B.C. racism in the form of the 1907 riots, evacuation and relocation, internment and dispersal, dispossession and repatriation. It follows a bitter struggle of a community to be accepted as Japanese Canadians. It includes historical news footage, newspaper clippings and old photographs. The film both opens and closes with 1975 film footage of an eighty year old Japanese Canadian woman relocated to the New Denver relocation camp during World War II; one of the few Japanese Canadians who decided to stay there with no other foreseeable place to go once the war had ended.

Manitoba Japanese Canadian Citizens' Association. (1996).
The History of Japanese Canadians in Manitoba.
Manitoba. Manitoba Japanese Canadian Citizens' Association.
1-55056-451-X.

This book is a detailed examination of the history of Japanese Canadians in Manitoba, within the context of the wartime years, and the internment policies. There is a concentration on the community, and the social element of the history, as well as the process of adaptation to the prairies and to city life. The second half of the book begins with the Redress agreement and looks to the future, in terms of cultural survival and growth. In looking to the future the author presents two main areas, 1) continuation of human rights work with other groups, and 2) the impact of intermarriage on the Japanese Canadian community.

McCaskell, Tim. (1996).
A.R.E. Resources for Anti-Racist Education (Secondary Materials).
Toronto. Equity Studies Centre, Toronto Board of Education.

This anti-racist education activity guide was created by the Equity Studies Centre, to be used for secondary students. The guide begins with an overview of what racism is, by defining prejudice, stereotyping and racism. It deals with the origins of racism, as well as sexism and homophobia, and how the media perpetuates these stereotypes. There is also a section which deals with the history of racism in Canada, focusing on White Supremacy, Japanese Internment and racism against Chinese Canadians. The majority of the guide is composed of practical tools for identifying racism, and how to deal with it, through role-playing activities, exercises and case studies.

Miki, Roy; Kobayashi, Cassandra. (1991).
Justice in Our Time: The Japanese Canadian Redress Settlement.
Vancouver and Winnipeg. Talonbooks & National Association of Japanese Canadians.
0-88922-292-4 (Talon Books) 0-9694756-1-6 (NAJC)

This book celebrates the Japanese Canadian Redress Agreement, signed September 22, 1988, aimed at reconciling the racist policies and actions enacted by the Canadian government during World War II. The book chronicles the steps to achieving redress by looking at the following: the Historical Background; The Redress Movement; the Ottawa Redress Rally; The Final Phase and Settlement Day.

Nakano, Takeo Ujo. (1980).
Within the Barbed Wire Fence: A Japanese Man's Account of Internment in
Toronto. University of Toronto Press.
0-88780-102-1.

This is the story of Takeo Nakano's experience of evacuation and relocation in British Columbia during the Second World War. The book, composed from diary entries and tanka poems, chronicles his forced separation from his wife and daughter in Woodfibre, to go and work in an internment labour camp in the B.C. interior. Included is an afterword by Peter Ward that adds an historical perspective on white Canadian racism towards those of Asian ancestry from the late 19th century throughout the second world war.

National Association of Japanese Canadians. (1986).
Economic Losses of Japanese Canadians After 1941.
Winnipeg. Hignell Printing.

This study documents the economic losses of the Japanese Canadians during the WWII period of evacuation and relocation, when they were unable to make their normal income levels and when their personal property was seized and liquidated by the Custodian of Enemy Property. The research was commissioned by the National Association of Japanese Canadians to the chartered accountants, Price Waterhouse of the Vancouver office and completed and released to the public in May of 1986. The economic losses are determined in both 1948 and 1986 dollars and the calculation areas of loss included: income loss, Fraser Valley farmland, Other real property, educational fees paid and other losses less awards made by the Bird Commission. The conclusion made was that "the Japanese Canadian community suffered a total economic loss after 1941, of not less than $443 million" in 1986 dollars.

 

Oiwa, Keibo (ed.). (1994).
Stone Voices: Wartime Writings of Japanese Canadian Issei.
Montreal. Vehicule Press.
1-55065-014-9.

Stone Voices is a collection of Issei stories, diaries, and letters, of the first generation of Japanese to settle in Canada. Their collective Japanese Canadian experience of uprooting, evacuation, dispersal and incarceration post-Pearl Harbor is made touchingly vivid through personal narratives.

Okazaki, Robert K. (1996).
The Nisei Mass Evacuation Group and the P.O.W. Camp 101 Angler, Ontario:
The Japanese-Canadian community's struggle for justice and human rights
during World War II.
Scarborough. Markham Litho Limited.

Robert Okazaki has written a poignant account of the internment and the years at a POW camp through his own personal experience as a POW. The history is chronicled through extensive documents that the author managed to preserve from this time period, and in doing so, provides a view into the reality of the internment years. In presenting this personal study, Okazaki also chronicles the entire Japanese Canadian community's struggle for justice and human rights.

Omatsu, Maryka. (1992).
Bittersweet Passage: Redress and the Japanese Canadian Experience.
Toronto. Between The Lines.
0-921284-58-6.

Maryka Omatsu tells the story of how Japanese Canadians fought for and won redress pertaining to the injustices their community faced during WWII. The book includes a detailed account of the legal and political process which had to be overcome in order to reach redress. The author leads us through the stages of this struggle, while at the same time allowing us to follow her personal journey through community and familial discovery.

Potterton, J.; Shapley, R.(Directors) Koenig, W. and Verrall, R.(Producers). (1978).
Canada Vignettes: The Dentist.
Canada. National Film Board of Canada.
NFB 113C 0178 211

Part of the Canada Vignettes series, this 1978 video focuses on a Japanese Canadian dentist living in Montreal and his childhood memories of a B.C. prison camp during WW II. He concludes that with the exception of some generalizations by others concerning his Asian origin, he has faced far less racism in Montreal when compared with his past experiences in the rest of Canada.

Shimizu, Yon. (1993).
The Exiles: An Archival History of the World War II Japanese Road Camps in
BC and Ontario.
Wallaceburg, ON. Shimizu Consulting & Publishing.
0-9697328-0-5.

This book contains extensive documentation of the history of the Japanese Canadian men who were exiled to road camps during the second world war. The facts are presented as a first hand account, of both internees, as well as government officials, through their letters and documents. The author draws attention to the heavily censored archival evidence found in the Public Archives of Canada and suggests that the official government record does not represent the entire truth. The reader is presented with a large body of material, that when read with the benefit of hindsight, leads closer to a true understanding of this historical event.

Suzuki, David. (1987).
Metamorphosis: Stages in a Life.
Toronto. Stoddart Publishing Co. Ltd.
0-7737-5509-8.

This book is an autobiography of one of the leading scientists and writers in Canada today, David Suzuki. The premise of this book is an exploration of the impact that the bombing of Pearl Harbor, and the subsequent events which ensued, had on David Suzuki as a Japanese Canadian person. David Suzuki chronicles his family's experience of forced evacuation and relocation and comments on how this childhood experience has ultimately shaped part of his cultural identity as well as providing him with an understanding of racism in Canada. Through his own personal experiences, Suzuki demonstrates the impact that the racist government policies against the Japanese Canadians in Canada prior to and after the second world war have had on him, as well as thousands of other Japanese Canadians.

Takashima, Shizuye. (1971).
A Child In Prison Camp.
Montreal. Tundra Books.
0-88776-241-7.

This illustrated children's book gives an account of what it was like for the author, Takashima, to experience the internment and life in a prison camp, as a child. The author writes from the perspective of an eleven year old child, uprooted from her home and labeled as "Enemy", and forced to live in an internment camp for three years.

Takata, Toyo. (1983).
Nikkei Legacy: The Story of Japanese Canadians from Settlement to Today.
Toronto. New Canada Publications.
0-919601-94-4.

This collection of interviews with early Japanese settlers and their descendents documents the history and contributions made by Japanese settlers to both Canadian culture and society. Takata chronicles the settlement patterns of Japanese Canadians before the war, outlines the process of evacuation and its impact on the people, and describes the resettlement in Toronto. The book concludes with an overview of the accomplishments of Japanese Canadians throughout this period.

The Japanese Canadian Centennial Project. (1978).
A Dream of Riches - The Japanese Canadians 1877-1977.
Vancouver and Toronto. The Japanese Canadian Centennial Project.
0-9690708-0-2.

This book documents the centennial history of the Japanese Canadians. Beginning with the year 1877, this centennial project covers the victories and losses of the immigrant community with particular focus on the internment and relocation during the Second World War. Archival photographs are interspersed with historical research and personal testimonies in three different languages: English, French and Japanese.

Thompson, John Herd. (1991).
Ethnic Minorities During Two World Wars.
Ottawa. Canadian Historical Association.
0-88798-128-3.

This booklet presents an overview of the treatment of ethnic minorities in Canada during two world wars. The information is presented as a challenge to the myth of Canada as a "peaceable kingdom" and a "tolerant multicultural mosaic." Specifically, the book concentrates on the nativistic discrimination which caused many naturalized or Canadian born citizens to lose legal rights, property and freedom, most notable Japanese Canadians, German Canadians, Ukrainian Canadians and Italian Canadians.

Ward, W.Peter. (1982).
The Japanese in Canada.
Ottawa. Canadian Historical Association.
0-88798-096-1.

Published in 1982, this book is part of a larger series entitled Canada's Ethnic Groups. The book concisely explores the history of the Japanese Canadians by dividing its query into the following sub-topics: The Japanese Background; The Issei; The Nissei; The Sansei and A Comparative Perspective. The book also includes a page of suggestions for further reading on the topic.