Aggressive Girls - Overview Paper
Introduction
Until recently, males were believed to be more aggressive and
violent than females, and therefore few studies of aggression and
violence included girls and women. Lately, however, more adolescent
girls have been charged with violent crimes than before,1 which
has led to increased research on girls who use violent strategies.
Nevertheless, prevention programs and intervention services often
rely on research based on explanations of male behaviour. However,
more recent research addresses how best to prevent and intervene
in girls’ use of aggression and violence.2-5
The rate of violent crime reflected in official reports increased
steadily among both male and female youth during the late 1980s
and the 1990s: the rate among male youth nearly doubled, and the
rate among female youth almost tripled.6,7 For example, the violent
crime rate among female youth rose from 2.2 per 1,000 in 1988 to
a peak of 5.6 per 1,000 in 1996, and began to decline in 1999. Two
key points must be noted. First, the number of charges laid against
boys is still three to four times greater than the number against
girls. Second, the actual number of girls charged is small, so that
a small increase in the number of charges results in a large percentage
increase.8
Some researchers suggest that the increase can be partly explained
by the stricter approach to schoolyard fights and bullying in recent
years, which has led educators, parents and police to label as “assaults”
behaviours once viewed as
unfortunate or “bad,” but not criminal.9 In fact, the
self-reported rates of aggressive behaviour of 10 and 11 year olds
in the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth were similar
in the 1994/95 and 1996/97 cycles (38% and 34% respectively).10
In both cycles, girls between the ages of 12 and 13 were less likely
than boys to display aggressive behaviour (29% and 56% respectively).11
Terms and Definitions
Numbers by themselves do not provide insight into the dynamics
of girls participation in aggression and violence. It is helpful
to start by defining the terms used to discuss the issue of aggression
and violence in girls.
Aggression
Aggression can be defined as a class of behaviours that
have in common an intrusive, demanding, and aversive effect on others.12
In other words, aggressive behaviours are those that are hurtful
and/ or harmful to others. Aggression that is outwardly observable,
as in name-calling, taunting, or physical intimidation and threat,
is overt. Aggression that is not observable, as in lying
or stealing, is covert. Aggression can also be direct
(threatening, yelling, insulting, name-calling, teasing, hitting,
shoving, pushing, kicking or destroying personal property) or indirect
(also known as social or relational
aggression, as in shunning, excluding, ignoring, gossiping, spreading
false rumours or disclosing another persons secrets). Canadian
reports indicate that girls demonstrate a higher level of indirect
aggression at every age than do boys and that indirect aggression
increases with age for both boys and girls.13,14
Violence
Violence is distinguished from aggression by the presence of acts
that involve the overt and observable use of physical force.15,16
Typically, males aggression is overt and direct (physical),
which contributes to the assumption that violence is a male behaviour.
However, recent studies provide evidence of females employing both
direct violence and indirect violence (using males to commit violent
acts for them).17,18 If violence were assumed to be a
male behaviour, female violence would be overlooked or denied. Consequently,
we would fail to develop ways to prevent or intervene in violence
by girls.
Bullying
Bullies use power to control others. Usually, a dominant
individual (the bully) repeatedly exhibits aggressive behaviour
intended to cause distress to a less dominant individual (the victim).19
Girl bullies tend to manipulate social groups by name-calling,
verbal abuse and spreading rumours to damage friendships among others
or to exclude selected girls from social interaction.20 Thus,
girl bullies tend to use non-physical aggression more than physical
violence.21 Most recently, girls are reported to be using
the Internet to harass their peers.22 Recent research
indicates that 9% of Canadian girls between the ages of 4 and 11
participate in bullying other children, and 7% are victimized by
bullies; 68% of children have been observed in both roles (bully
and victim).23 Without intervention, bullying behaviours
in young children tend to persist throughout adolescence. Girls
who are bullied are more likely to feel sad or miserable than to
feel angry. They more often discuss their distress with their friends
than with a teacher or another adult.24
2
Conduct Disorder
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM-IV),25 to be diagnosed with conduct
disorder a young person must have committed at least three violations
in four categories of aggression (aggression toward people and animals,
aggression toward property, deceit/theft and serious violations
of rules) in the previous 12 months, the latest within the previous
6 months.26 Girls who frequently use aggression and violence
may be diagnosed as conduct disordered. These girls
display a pattern of repetitive behaviours that involve violating
the rights of others and other socially destructive behaviours.27
Only a qualified DSM-IV-trained practitioner can make a diagnosis
of conduct disorder, which represents an underlying dysfunction
within the individual and is distinct from behaviours that reflect
reactions to social or contextual situations.28 Being
labelled with a mental disorder represents a permanent condition
and may not allow a girl to change or develop new behaviours. Therefore,
labelling should be taken very seriously by anyone working with
children and youth, and used only after careful consideration of
its appropriateness and impact.29 Some research suggests
that biological, genetic and medical factors are related to the
occurrence of conduct disorder in some children.30 Environmental
factors such as family, education and peer relationships also influence
the development and maintenance of conduct disorder. Conduct disorder
is not oppositional disorder. Girls with oppositional
disorder display patterns of negative, hostile and defiant behaviour,
but their behaviours do not involve violating the rights of others.
Why Do Girls Engage in Aggression and Violence?
Some researchers think that girls resort to aggression and violence
for different reasons than boys. No single factor can predict aggressive
and violent behaviour.31 The factors that contribute
to the risk of aggressive and violent behaviour among girls include
both systemic (family, community and social context) and individual
(personal) variables.32 Usually, many factors act in
combination.
Family Dynamics and Parental Relationships
Evidence suggests that aggressive and violent behaviour in children
is linked to family and social factors, such as social and financial
deprivation; harsh and inconsistent parenting; parents marital
problems; family violence, whether between parents, by parents toward
children or between siblings; poor parental mental health; physical
and sexual abuse; and alcoholism, drug dependency or other substance
misuse by parents or other family members.33 In addition,
many aggressive and violent girls have poorly developed connections
to their mothers.34,35
School Difficulties
Girls who experience difficulties at school, like social rejection
by peers and low connectedness to school, are often more likely
to be absent and to drop out eventually. These girls are also more
likely to use aggression and violence.36-39 Problems
at home and learning disabilities are also interconnected with difficulties
at school.
3
Gender Issues
Aggressive and violent girls often see male control and domination
over females as normal. They may hold views similar to those that
support male violence towards females in that they tend to believe
girls and women have less value and importance than boys and men.
Aggressive and violent girls tend to attack other girls who are
perceived as competing with them for male attention, and they tend
to maintain social connections with peers who are perceived as helping
them win in that competition.40
Boredom and Attention-seeking Behaviour
Girls who engage in relational aggression and bullying suggest
that they often do so to alleviate boredom, by creating excitement,
finding out gossip, seeking attention/importance41 and
seeking validation from a group that excludes others.42
Connections to Delinquent Peers
Girls are more likely than boys to be rejected by their peers
for engaging in outward (overt and direct) aggression and violence.43
However, gang membership can appeal to girls when they are
seeking to escape economically disadvantaged homes, improve their
self-esteem, increase their feelings of belonging, or seek revenge
and protection.44 Association with delinquent peers increases
girls opportunities to engage in aggressive and violent behaviours.
Experiences with Abuse
Aggressive and violent girls often report having been victimized
by others.45 These girls are more likely than non-violent
girls and both violent and non-violent boys to have been attacked
while going to or from school, physically abused at home, sexually
abused or coerced into sexual relations.46 In their relationships
with adults, aggressive and violent girls have often learned that
relationships involve one person dominating and abusing another.47
Drug Involvement
The abuse of alcohol and drugs contributes to aggression and violence
in both adolescent girls and boys.48 However, chronic
use of drugs seems to be especially strongly related to girls
ongoing participation in violence.49
Atypical Physiological Responses
Girls who externalize (openly show) aggression and anger very
often have family histories that involved repeated exposure to negative
events during which they could neither fight nor flee (e.g. being
abused as a child or being exposed to the abuse of a parent and/or
sibling).50 As a result, these girls tend to be less
responsive than other girls when exposed to threatening or stressful
situations. They tend not to avoid situations that others would
deem risky or dangerous and so are more likely to become involved
with violence.51
Personality Factors and Mental Illness
Although conduct disorder occurs in only 2% of the female youth
population,52 close to 90% of aggressive and violent
girls are given a diagnosis of conduct disorder, and 31% have a
diagnosis of major depression.53,54 Aggressive and violent
girls are also known to suffer from anxiety and attachment disorders
(difficulties creating and sustaining affectionate social and personal
bonds).55 With the onset of puberty, girls are typically
three times as likely as boys to suffer from depression due to low
self-esteem, negative body image, feelings of helplessness and hopelessness,
and stress.56 If they are also exposed to abuse or neglect
at home, they are at increased risk of becoming involved with violence.57
4
Delayed Cognitive, Moral and Social Development
The use of aggression and violence may be more likely if girls
believe that other peoples attitudes toward them are negative.58
Aggressive and violent girls may also have poor self-representations
or self-images, based on negative beliefs about themselves or on
negative perceptions they believe parents and peers have of them.59
Girls who experience delayed cognitive, moral or social development
are more likely to experience school difficulties and social rejection,
and are therefore at an increased risk of resorting to aggressive
and violent behaviour.60
Myths and Realities About Violent Girls
Myths abound about the reasons for aggression and violence in
girls. The reality about what drives girls to become aggressive
or violent becomes clear when we examine their experiences and beliefs.
Table 1 outlines the myths and realities of what contributes to
aggressive and violent behaviour in girls.61,62
What Factors Can Prevent Girls From Engaging in Aggression
and Violence?
Various protective factors can help girls at risk to avoid exhibiting
aggressive and violent behaviour.63
Individual protective factors: An intelligent girl with
solid self-esteem, who believes that she is a capable person and
who is able to take on age-appropriate social and personal responsibilities,
is not likely to become aggressive or violent.
Family protective factors: Within the family, variables
that support girls use of assertive rather than aggressive
behaviour include positive exposure to social situations; the presence
of at least one caring and supportive adult; positive relationships
with parents, especially mothers; and effective, non-authoritarian
parenting.
School/community protective factors: At the school and
neighbourhood level, variables that help to prevent or counter aggression
and violence in girls include opportunities for education, achievement,
personal growth and employment, as well as feelings of connectedness
to the local community.
Efforts to prevent or counter girls aggression and violence
should be directed toward individual, family and community levels.
5
Table 1
Myths and Realities About Aggressive and Violent Girls
Myth |
Reality |
|
Aggressive
and violent girls
|
Aggressive
and violent girls
|
- Do not care about others. |
- Endorse respect and concern for
others, |
|
politeness, forgiveness and generosity
to the |
|
same degree as non-violent girls;
they value |
|
honesty less than non-violent girls
do, but not |
|
less than boys. |
|
|
- Beat up people for no reason or
for fun. |
- Rationalize their aggression and
violence |
|
toward others by blaming someone
else, as in |
|
she made me do it or
I never beat up anyone |
|
I didnt have to. |
|
|
- Are trying to show that females |
- Do not recognize the value or power
of females |
are equal to males. |
and believe that females are inferior
to males; |
|
they believe the only way they can
attain power |
|
is by attracting dominant males. |
|
|
- Are an outcome of womens |
- Are more likely to seek validation
from men |
liberation. |
than to compete with them. |
|
|
- Have never been adequately |
- Have been harshly disciplined and
received |
disciplined. |
more abuse than non-violent girls
and both |
|
violent and non-violent boys. |
|
|
- Get high on being involved in |
- Often act out aggressively to secure
social |
dangerous activities. |
dominance or to avoid being controlled
or |
|
victimized by others. |
Individual level: Prevention programs and intervention
services should address the unique ways in which girls respond to
initiatives to prevent violence.64 Initiatives should
- counter girls low self-esteem as they approach adolescence;
- focus on early intervention for girls who have witnessed or
experienced violence, with an emphasis on strengthening and valuing
the roles of women;
- provide experiences that instill a sense of mattering
( i.e., a sense of being valued and belonging) not based on sexual
currency;
- involve girls in social skills and assertiveness training programs;65-67
and
- resist programs that focus solely on anger management, since
they ignore the ways in which aggression and violence can be adaptations
in the struggle to survive (e.g. for self-protection).
6
Family level: Including parents in interventions is essential.
Aggressive girls benefit from a long-term relationship with at least
one adult who provides them with a sense of acceptance, safety and
prosocial values.68 In some cases, this adult may be someone
outside of the family.
School/community level: Early involvement in proactive,
prosocial programs in elementary schools has demonstrated positive
effects on reducing aggression and violence in girls.69 Children
(both boys and girls) should be engaged in discussions about sexism
and taught to hold broader and less restrictive views of the roles
of girls and boys.70 The best prevention efforts tend
to be community-driven, use multiple strategies and adopt a holistic
approach that incorporates involvement of parents, students, community-based
agencies and community members. Programs should also include a plan
for ongoing evaluation and follow-up.
Resources
Canadian risk assessment tools, prevention programs and intervention
services are listed below to assist parents, teachers and youth
workers.
Earlscourt Child and Family Centre
46 St. Clair Gardens Toronto, ON M6E 3V4 Telephone: (416) 654-8981
Fax: (416) 654-8996 E-mail: mailus@earlscourt.on.ca Internet: www.earlscourt.on.ca
- Girls Connection Program and the
EARL-21G Early Assessment Risk List for Girls, Consultation
Edition 2001.
Department of Justice Canada
284 Wellington Street Ottawa, ON K1A 0H8
Internet: canada.justice.gc.ca/en/ps/yj
- |
Shaw, M. and Jané, F. Family Group
Conferencing with Children Under Twelve: A Discussion Paper,
1999. Available on Internet: <http://canada.justice.gc.ca/en/ps/yj/
rp/doc/Paper107.PDF>
|
- |
Goldberg, K., Augimeri, L.K., Koegl, C.J. and
Webster, C.D. Canadian Children Under 12 Committing Offences:
Legislative and Treatment Approaches, 1999. Available on
Internet: <http://canada.justice.gc.ca/en/ps/yj/ rp/doc/Paper102.PDF>
|
- |
Artz, S. A Community-Based Approach for Dealing
with Chronically-Violent Under Twelve Year Old Children,
2001. Available on Internet: <http://canada.justice.gc.ca/en/ps/yj/
rp/doc/Paper104.PDF> |
Men for Change
Box 33005, Quinpool Postal Outlet Halifax, NS B3L 4T6 Telephone:
(902) 457-4351 Fax: (902) 457-4597 E-mail: info@m4c.ns.ca or
aa116@chebucto.ns.ca or mailto:healthy@fox.nstn.ca
Internet: www.m4c.ns.ca or www.chebucto.ns.ca/Community
Support/Men4Change
- Safer, A. Healthy Relationships: A Violence-prevention Curriculum,
1996.
7
British Columbia Health Research Foundation
#7104720 Kingsway Burnaby BC V5H 4N2
Telephone: 1-800-565-1994 or (604) 436-3573 Fax:
(604) 436-2573 Internet: http://www.bchrf.org
- |
Artz, S., Riecken, T., MacIntyre, B., Lam, E.
and Maczewski, M. A Community-based Violence Prevention Project:
Final Report, 1999. |
School of Child and Youth Care
University of Victoria Victoria, BC and
National Crime Prevention Centre Ottawa, ON
Internet: http://web.uvic.ca/cyc or http://www.crime-prevention.org
- Gender-Sensitive Guide for Needs Assessment for Youth.
Available on Internet: http://web.uvic.ca/cyc/naty
BC Institute Against Family Violence
Vancouver, BC
Telephone: (604) 255-5147 Internet: http://www.bcifv.org/
- SAFE TEEN: A life skills and violence prevention program.
Available on Internet: http://www.bcifv.org/resources/newsletter/
1998/fall/safeteen.html
Suggested Reading
Artz, S. Sex, Power, and the Violent School Girl. Toronto,
ON: Trifolium, 1998.
Cameron, C.A. and the Creating Peaceful Learning Environments
Schools Research Team. Violence Prevention in the Socialization
of the Girl Child. Girls and Boys: Apart
and Together. Fredericton,
NB: Muriel McQueen Fergusson Family Violence Research Centre, 2000.
Carrington, P. and Moyer, S. A Statistical Profile of Female
Young Offenders. Ottawa: Justice Canada, 1998. Available on
Internet: <http://canada.justice.gc.ca/en/ps/rs/rep/ tr98-4a-e.html>
Cavell, T. Working with Parents of Aggressive Children: A Practitioners
Guide. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2000.
Lamb, S. The Secret Lives of Girls: What Good Girls Really
Do Sex Play, Aggression, and Their Guilt. New York, NY:
Free Press, 2002.
Pollack, W. Real Boys: Rescuing Our Sons From the Myths of
Boyhood. New York, NY: Henry Holt, 1998.
Simmons, R. Odd Girl Out: The Hidden Culture of Aggression
in Girls. New York, NY: Harcourt Brace, 2002.
8
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Our mission is to help the people of Canada maintain and improve
their health.
Health Canada
Aggressive Girls was prepared by Sibylle Artz and
Diana Nicholson for the Family Violence Prevention Unit,
Health Canada.
Également disponible en français sous le titre:
Les filles agressives
The opinions expressed in this document are those of the authors
and do not necessarily reflect the views of Health Canada.
Contents may not be reproduced for commercial purposes, but any
other reproduction, with acknowledgements, is encouraged.
This publication can be made available in alternative formats
upon request.
For more information:
National Clearinghouse on Family Violence
Family Violence Prevention Unit Public Health Agency of Canada (PHAC)
Health Canada (Address Locator: 1909D1)
9th Floor, Jeanne Mance Bldg., Tunneys Pasture
Ottawa, Ontario K1A 1B4
Telephone: 1-800-267-1291 or (613) 957-2938 Fax: (613) 941-8930
TTY: 1-800-561-5643 or (613) 952-6396 Web Site: http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/nc-cn
E-mail: ncfv-cnivf@phac-aspc.gc.ca
© Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, represented by
the Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada, 2002
Cat. N° H72-22/24-2002E
ISBN 0-662-33312-8
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