FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

INTRODUCTION

The frequently asked questions listed here originated from Canadians curious about or interested in a wide variety of aquaculture issues. We have addressed these in an effort to better communicate facts related to aquaculture in Canada.

Certain words, terms or phrases are linked to images or additional, detailed information about that particular subject.

If you have a question that is not addressed in this list, please use the Contact Us feature on this website to send us your query.

GENERAL INTEREST

What is aquaculture?

Aquaculture is farming of fish, shellfish and aquatic plants in fresh or salt water. Aquaculture products can be grown inland in freshwater recycling facilities, ponds, freshwater lakes and bays, or in the open ocean. The farmed aquatic animals and plants are fed and cared for to ensure optimum health and product quality. Once they have reached an appropriate size, they are harvested, processed, and then shipped to market. Fresh products can reach the market within hours of leaving the water.

What is government’s role in aquaculture?

Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is the lead federal department responsible for aquaculture management. We work with the provinces and other federal departments to create the policy and regulatory conditions necessary to ensure that the aquaculture industry develops in an environmentally responsible way while remaining economically competitive in national and international markets.

All aquaculture operations are subject to rigorous environmental monitoring under a number of federal and provincial acts to ensure they meet high standards of environmental sustainability.

What is DFO’s role in aquaculture management?

DFO’s aquaculture-related activities include:

• Developing and testing methods for predicting and measuring the effects of aquaculture operations on the ocean floor;
• Reviewing licence applications for new finfish or shellfish farms – as well as those up for renewal – to identify and mitigate environmental interactions such as the potential effects on marine habitat and wild fish stocks;
• Conduct screenings under the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act to determine all potential impacts of fish farm operations;
• Studying the interactions and impacts of escaped fish;
• Working with industry to develop new fish health protocols and tools, including more sensitive tests and vaccines;
• Enforce the Fisheries Act and other legislation where applicable; and,
• Conduct research into new species diversification for their commercial potential.

What role do provincial governments play in aquaculture management?

Aquaculture management is a shared responsibility between the federal and provincial governments. The aquaculture-related activities of Canadian provinces typically include:

• Issuing operating licences and granting the tenures for site location (with the exception of Prince Edward Island, where this is federally managed);
• Regulating farm activities such as escape prevention, fish health, new technology development, compliance and enforcement of regulations, and improved farm siting and relocation;
• Waste management;
• Research and development;
• Conducting onsite inspections; and,
• Enforce provincial legislation and regulations related to the aquaculture industry and the environment.

Why farm fish and seafood in Canada? Don’t Canadians have access to an abundant supply of wild fish?

The supply of wild fish and shellfish cannot keep up with the rising global demand for fish and seafood. Farmed fish and seafood can supply a fresh, reliable, year-round source of protein.

Statistics Canada also reports that Canadians are eating more fish and seafood. Their data indicate that consumption increased by 10 per cent between 1991 and 2003. They speculate that this is likely a reflection of changing demographics, increased ethnic diversity, and a more nutrition-conscious population.

Canada is ideally suited for an aquaculture industry. Our strengths include extensive coastlines and healthy, productive marine and freshwater resources, a reputation for quality products, proximity to established and growing markets, an effective and efficient transportation infrastructure, an internationally reputable food inspection system, a skilled workforce and strong management expertise.

How long has aquaculture been practiced in Canada?

Aquaculture is not a recent undertaking in Canada. Finfish aquaculture can be traced back to the 1850s when governments engaged in the incubation and hatching of different species of finfish and shellfish. By 1950, a network of federal and provincial hatcheries was producing approximately 750 million freshwater trout and salmon annually for wild stock enhancement and recreational fishing.

Commercial aquaculture on began in Canada in the 1970s, and grew quickly throughout the 1980s. It is now a significant national contributor as a food product supplier and in economic and employment terms, directly employing approximately 6,000 Canadians, 95 per cent of who live in rural or coastal communities.

Commercial marine finfish aquaculture operations in Canada began in the early 1980s. The industry evolved from a series of small local experiments on the east and west coasts, and now thrives with extensive operations in Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Quebec, and British Columbia. In British Columbia, shellfish farming dates as far back as the 1920s, through the cultivation of Pacific oysters.

Oyster farming began early in the 20th century on both coasts, where cultivation consisted of collecting seed and spreading them on beds where they could be protected from public harvest and predation. In the 1950 s, the industry started collection of wild juvenile shellfish on "spat collectors," which were placed on "nursery" grounds and grown to market size. By the 1970s, this technique was also used for mussels, which now constitute the major shellfish aquaculture activity in Atlantic Canada. The Malpeque oyster and Island Blue mussel are internationally renowned names that have been generated from these enterprises.

Where is aquaculture done?

Aquaculture is practiced in every province, as well as the Yukon Territory. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC) and Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) have produced an Aquaculture Atlas that provides a general overview of where our seafood products are farmed across Canada. At this website, you can also access a series of fact sheets on the various species of fish and shellfish farmed in Canadian waters.

What species are grown commercially in Canada?

In Canada, many species of fish and shellfish are grown commercially. In addition, there is a growing interest in algae aquaculture in the Atlantic and Pacific. The chief commercial saltwater or ocean fish species are Atlantic salmon and Pacific salmon (Chinook and Coho). The primary commercial freshwater fish species are Rainbow trout and Arctic char. The main commercial shellfish species are Blue mussels, Pacific oysters and American oysters. Seaweed farming operations in Nova Scotia and British Columbia produce edible species as well as those used for pharmaceutical extractions. Nori is the most commonly cultured edible species.

Are any other species being examined for aquaculture potential?

New species such as halibut, sablefish or black cod, Atlantic cod, wolffish, striped bass, eels, haddock, abalone, geoducks, and green sea urchins are in the experimental stages of development.

How do you farm fish, shellfish and marine plants?

The methods vary, reflecting the diverse aquatic habitats that make up Canada’s coastline and freshwater environments as well as the diversity of species listed under “What species are grown commercially in Canada.” Freshwater fish are raised using enclosed freshwater ponds; holding tank systems fed by well-water, stream flow-through, or water re-circulation systems. Both freshwater and marine fish can also be farmed using net-cages suspended in lakes, estuaries or in open-water coastal sites.

Molluscan shellfish (mussels, oysters, clams and scallops) are generally collected as “spat” or “seed” from the wild by putting out collectors to which the juvenile shellfish attach. Some species are also produced in hatcheries where broodstock are spawned and the larvae raised under controlled growing conditions. In both cases, when the juveniles are large enough to be transferred to grow-out sites, they are removed from the collectors and transferred for spreading on “beds” (sites that have been prepared for the spreading of juvenile oysters or clams), or to holding bags, cages, or rope lines for grow-out to market size. Mussels are transferred to “mussel socks,” or mesh tubes that provide a foothold for attachment to the ropes on which the mussels are grown.

Marine plants are grown using longlines, shellfish socks, or land-based recirculation tanks.

How many licensed aquaculture operations are there in Canada?

In 2004, there were 6,598 licensed aquaculture operations in Canada.

What type and how many aquaculture licences¹ are there in each province?

1. Aquaculture licence = permit to operate an aquaculture operation.

2. Data provided are for the year 2003. Number of licensed operators is 25; 44 licences issued for sites / water bodies.

3. Data provided are for year 2002.

4. Includes farm dugouts and ponds. n/av – not available.

* With the exception of PEI, aquaculture licences are issued under provincial or territorial jurisdiction.

What is the size of a fish farm or shellfish farm operation?

The size of an aquaculture operation, or tenure, varies depending on the geographic location of the site. The tenure (the size of the licensed area in which the farm can operate) is much larger than the actual operating space (cages, equipment shed, staff quarters, dock, etc), which is about one-third of the size of the entire tenure. The ropes and anchors that help keep the cages, lines or bags moored to the site extend far into the tenure.

Depending on the number of net cages situated at a particular location, a fish farm can vary in size from 2.8 hectares to 4.6 hectares (6.9 to 11.4 acres).

A mussel tenure can vary in size depending on whether it is a seed site, seed and grow-out site or a grow-out only site. The size can range from 20 to 200 hectares (49.4 to 494.2 acres).

An oyster farm can vary in size from 0.4 hectares to 40 hectares (1–100 acres).

How many salmon are grown at one time?

The typical salmon farm operates 6 to 24 net cages that contain between 35,000 and 50,000 fish per cage. Net cages can be circular or square. Circular cages have a circumference of 23 and 32 metres (75–105 feet). Square cages are roughly 30 metres by 30 metres (or 100 feet by 100 feet). Depth varies depending on the exact location, but tend to be between 6 and 20 metres (20–65 feet) deep.

How many mussels can be grown at one time?

There are two ways of calculating the number of mussels – by the size of the farm, or by the number of longlines in operation. A 65-hectare farm, for example, would grow approximately 10 to 11 million mussels at one time.

What is the age, size and weight of the average farmed fish at harvest?

The average market-ready salmon weighs between 4.6 and 6 kilograms and is harvested when the fish is approximately two-and-a-half years old. They can be smaller, depending on the time of year and market demand. Steelhead trout are often harvested at about 1.8 kilograms to yield two .4-kilogram fillets. Freshwater rainbow culture produces "pan-sized" fish of .4 to .9 kilograms.

What is the age, size and weight of cultured shellfish at harvest?

It can take between 18 months and four years for shellfish to reach harvest size. Shellfish growth rate is related directly to the species (mussels grow faster than oysters) or the temperature and feeding conditions at their grow-out site. Molluscs are generally harvested at the time of year when they are in peak condition – at their "fattest." Some species – mussels, for example – keep feeding over winter and can be harvested through the ice. Other species, such as oysters, need a period in the spring to recuperate from overwintering, before they reach a condition suitable for marketing.

Mussels

The average market-size Blue mussel – the variety sold widely in grocery stores and fish markets – is harvested when it reaches 5.5 cm to 6 cm (2–2.5 inches) in length. The mussels reach this size 18 to 24 months following the transfer of the mussel seed or spat to the grow-out mussel socks. A sock is a long mesh tube – often strengthened with a strand of polypropylene twine – suspended on longlines near the surface by flotation buoys.

Oysters

Cultured oysters are generally sold per count or by weight in varying sizes and types of packaging depending on the species. Practices vary according to species, region and market demand. All of the oysters described below are grown in Canadian waters.

Eastern (American) oysters

Two forms of Eastern oyster are marketed from Atlantic Canada.

The traditional size oyster
Traditional oysters are farmed or wild harvested Eastern (American) oysters that measure over 8 cm (3 inches) in length from the hinge to the tip of the shell. Fisheries and Oceans Canada set this length as a conservation measure to permit oysters in the wild to spawn over at least two seasons prior to harvest. It can take between three and four years for cultured Eastern oysters to grow to market size and quality. There are three grades of oysters: choice, standard and commercial – with choice being the highest valued product. Shell and meat conditions are both taken into account for these rankings.

Most wild American oysters from the commercial fishery are harvested between September 15 and November 30 and are sold at sizes varying between 8 and 13 cm (3–5 inches). Many larger farmed oysters are also marketed late in the year, as there is a major demand for oysters in the Maritimes and Europe, particularly France, around December.

The "cocktail" oyster
Cocktail oysters are Eastern (American) oysters that are less than 8 cm (3 inches). Larger oysters can either be commercially harvested from the wild or cultured but these sources cannot be sold under the "cocktail" oyster category for farmers producing their oysters from seed.

The cocktail oyster licence was introduced in 1996 to permit oyster growers to sell their produce at a smaller size than that set to protect the commercial fishery. This license requires farmers who wish to market oysters less than 8 cm (3 inches) in length to have grown their oyster from seed size. This condition reflects the added investment and work required to do this and is designed to minimize conflict with the commercial fishers or farmers who stock their sites with larger oysters to cut down the grow-out period to traditional market size. Cocktail oysters take two-and-a-half to three years to grow from seed.

European (Flat, Belone or Edible) oyster
European oysters were introduced to Canada in the 1970s and 80s for culture diversification purposes. Since this species has very limited survival over winter and is susceptible to extreme Atlantic Canadian coastal conditions, production in Canada has been limited. This species is generally sold at a size of 8 to 10 cm (3–4 inches) to 10 cm from hinge to tip of the shell. It can take between three to four years for European oysters to grow to market size.

Pacific (Japanese, Yesso or cupped) oyster
All Pacific oysters are produced on the west coast of Canada and were introduced specifically for aquaculture. There are no wild Pacific oyster populations in British Columbia. A large portion are marketed either on-the-half-shell (one of the two shells are removed) or as shucked meats (with both shells removed) before either being processed or shipped fresh to retail markets. The average cultured Pacific oyster is harvested when it reaches between 8 and 10 cm (3–4 inches) in shell length.

These oysters grow faster than the Eastern oyster, taking 18 to 24 months under beach-culture conditions, when transplanted as 20 mm seed from production hatcheries. Approximately 12 oysters constitute one kilogram of meat.

A 15-cm (6-inch) oyster is the prime size for shucked meat and requires three years growth in deep waters to reach this size. Beach-cultured oysters take six years to reach this size.

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SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Has DFO actually done its own scientific studies on aquaculture?

Yes. DFO has conducted shellfish aquaculture research since the 1960s and salmon and trout aquaculture research since the 1970s. DFO research has had a positive impact on the improvement of the aquaculture industry. Our scientific research is rigorously peer reviewed and posted on our national and regional websites and published in a variety of well respected journals and magazines, such as Aquaculture, the Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Environmental Science and Technology, Science, Nature, and Canadian Geographic.

Since 2000, some of our research has been jointly funded and done in collaboration with industry, and coordinated through the Aquaculture Collaborative Research and Development Program to address industry R&D priorities. Under this program, DFO has joined forces with universities and colleges, other federal and provincial ministries and industry to work on various aquaculture projects including scientific studies related to the development of best-performance in fish production, fish health management, and environmental performance of the industry. The program’s collaborative approach contributes to the integration of sound scientific knowledge with management of aquaculture operations and helps the sector evolve.

What kinds of studies have other organizations done?

Many credible scientific studies related to aquaculture have been done by provincial governments, academic institutions, non-government organizations, and individuals in Canada. Internationally, there is a vast amount of research. For more information on aquaculture research please visit the organizations listed under the Links section on this website.

Has enough scientific research been done to tell us that aquaculture poses a low risk to the environment?

Research to date provides us with a level of assurance that the environmental effects of aquaculture can be controlled to operate within acceptable levels.

DFO plays an integral role in the risk-assessment process through rigorous scientific reviews of existing knowledge and research needs associated with the environmental effects of aquaculture in aquatic ecosystems. The department’s "State of Knowledge" review is essential to identify areas that require further scientific investigation. Results are published on our website at this link.

Are genetically engineered fish being grown for human consumption?

No. There are no genetically engineered (GE) fish allowed for commercial use or release in Canada nor has DFO received an application to import or grow GE fish for commercial use or release. The Canadian Environmental Protection Act regulates the import and manufacture of genetically engineered aquatic animals. DFO is carrying out risk-assessment research on genetically engineered salmon in contained, land-based facilities.

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LEGISLATION & REGULATIONS

Yes. Canada’s aquaculture industry operates under a broad set of federal, provincial/territorial, and municipal legislation and regulations. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) is the lead federal department responsible for aquaculture management. We work with other federal departments and provincial governments to create the policy and regulatory conditions necessary to ensure the aquaculture industry develops in an environmentally responsible way while remaining economically competitive in international markets.

To learn more about how the provinces regulate their respective aquaculture industries, we encourage you to visit their websites listed under the links section.

Do aquaculture operations undergo an environmental assessment?

Yes. In the vast majority of cases, aquaculture operations undergo a thorough environmental assessment and appropriate mitigating measures are adopted before their facilities can be approved.

For example, before the Government of Canada grants approval to an aquaculture, the federal department or departments involved must ensure that an environmental assessment is done under the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act. This environmental assessment is carried out to determine the significance of the potential adverse environmental effects that an aquaculture facility may pose. In addition, as part of the federal review of aquaculture proposals, all aquaculture site applications are reviewed pursuant to the federal Fisheries Act to ensure the site does not impact fish and fish habitat.

I’ve heard a lot about aquaculture posing risks to the environment. Can aquaculture be risk free?

Like other industries, aquaculture is not completely free of effects on the environment – that is why it is subject to regulatory review and effectiveness and compliance monitoring to constantly improve assessment and management practices.

Consider just a few of the industries humans rely on everyday: we travel on airplanes, drive cars, manufacture goods, extract and burn natural resources, cut down trees, rely on hydroelectric power, and engage in recreational activities like golf, downhill skiing and gardening. All of these activities affect land, air and water or a combination of all three.

Not one of these activities is entirely free of effects on the environment, yet we have come to accept them as part of the natural course of our lives either out of necessity, convenience or pleasure. Regulatory controls, monitoring and compliance protocols, and penalties exist to ensure these industries remain compliant with environmental standards. However, these measures did not appear overnight.

Aquaculture sites are designed and operated following various measures that are intended to mitigate or minimize environmental effects. These mitigation measures might include choosing appropriate locations for sites to avoid important or sensitive habitats, incorporating periods of inactivity into site production schedules, or adjusting production levels based on environmental monitoring performance.

Does DFO listen to people who live in rural and coastal communities as to whether they want a farm site in their "backyard"?

Yes. Comments and concerns of interested Canadians are considered during the site application review process. Notices of project proposals may be placed in local newspapers. Notices of environmental assessments under the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act are posted on the Canadian Environmental Assessment Registry website. Canadians are encouraged to contact their closest fisheries office if they have questions or concerns regarding aquaculture site proposals.

On a broader scale, DFO has conducted several public opinion research studies – focus group research and public opinion polling – to gauge Canadian’s awareness and perceptions of aquaculture.

How many fish farms or shellfish farms can be in an area?

The number of aquaculture operations permitted in a given area depend on siting guidelines (where to locate the farm) that set criteria for determining if a location is suitable for aquaculture development. The results of an environmental assessment consider, among other factors, the total environmental effects of the proposed operation in combination with nearby projects or activities in the area such as marinas or fish processing plants.

A complex range of factors is considered as part of the review of a site application. These include size of the proposed operation, the surrounding ecosystem, and other uses such as commercial fisheries, marinas, recreational areas, adjacent land-use, or transportation corridors. For example, the Inner Bay of Fundy, New Brunswick may have the potential to support a different number of aquaculture operations than can Clayoquot Sound, British Columbia.

All new fish farm sites must undergo a review for potential fish habitat effects pursuant to Section 35 of the Fisheries Act. The review includes evaluation of information on the size of the farm combined with specific features of the site such as ocean-floor habitat and the strength of water currents. The review is intended to identify the means by which to avoid negative effects to fish habitat. Where potential effects cannot be avoided, the review identifies the appropriate regulatory response based on the scale of potential habitat effects and on the sensitivity of the fish and fish habitat in the proposed farming area.

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ENFORCEMENT, INSPECTION AND MONITORING

Are aquaculture operations inspected on a regular basis?

Yes. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) and other federal, provincial and territorial government departments monitor aquaculture operations. This may be done by reviewing monitoring data gathered by aquaculture operators as part of the requirements of their licence, lease or other approval, or by conducting periodic on-site audits of operations. For example, DFO Habitat Officers routinely examine monitoring information to ensure that the farms are operating in accordance with the requirements set out during the review process, and that the mitigation measures being applied by the operator are effective in minimizing fish habitat effects.

What types of ongoing monitoring take place? Who does the monitoring?

Ongoing monitoring is usually a requirement of provincial licences or approvals. Provinces often require that aquaculture operators report on the performance of their sites by measuring certain indicators in the environment that tell regulators what kinds of environmental effects might be occurring at the site. Provincial and federal officials may also visit farm sites to evaluate firsthand how well the farm is operating. Provinces also share monitoring information with federal agencies. For instance, British Columbia conducts annual inspections and spot audits of all active salmon farms to ensure they are following the rules and makes these data available via the internet. Click on the link to view BC Compliance and Enforcement reports.

Are penalties given to aquaculture operators who break the rules? What kind?

Sections 35–43 of the federal Fisheries Act are applied to the aquaculture industry. They provide for wild fish habitat protection and pollution prevention. For example, section 35 for the Fisheries Act prohibits the unauthorized harmful alteration, disruption or destruction of fish habitat. Violators of the Fisheries Act may potentially face fines of up to C$500,000 and, for subsequent offences, face a fine not exceeding C$500,000 and up to two years in prison. In fact, the Fisheries Act is one of the strongest pieces of environmental legislation in Canada.

Habitat

Do aquaculture operations affect the environment?

Yes. However, the industry must meet rigorous federal, provincial and international environmental standards. These standards are based on the best available science to minimize and manage the risks associated with aquaculture and to continuously adapt and improve environmental standards and performance. Where science gaps exist, aquaculture development is regulated in the context of the precautionary approach. Aquaculture practices are scrutinized by government agencies, food retailers, environmental advocacy groups, and consumers. Strategic location of aquaculture operations, combined with various measures to mitigate effects, minimizes the environmental effect on the ocean floor.

Aquaculture – particularly salmon farming – has come under criticism for not being a zero-risk industry. "Zero risk" does not exist. Humans rely on a number of everyday products such as automobiles, airplanes, lumber, and oil. Not one of the products is a result of an environmentally risk-free industry, yet we have come to accept these industries as part of the natural course of our lives either out of necessity, convenience or pleasure. The federal and provincial governments are responsible for ensuring that all industries comply with current environmental protection standards.

DFO and the provinces regularly assess environmental risks associated with current aquaculture practices. DFO Science advice, such as that provided through the State of Knowledge initiative and the Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat assists with this ongoing analysis. Canada has a system of checks and balances that are vital to the management of the salmon farming industry such as: Environmental Assessment; The National Aquatic Animal Health Program; and, Canada’s National Code on Introductions and Transfers of Aquatic Organisms.

Does shellfish farming pose a risk to other aquatic species or the marine environment?

When properly sited and designed, shellfish culture operations generally cause a minimum of change to the marine environment. As with fish farms, shellfish operations are subject to a detailed assessment of the proposed location and its ability to support the proposed farm. This assessment also reviews the potential cumulative effects of the farm combined with other activities in the area. The operation can be considered sustainable as long as the size and number of the operations in a given area stays within the capacity of the environment to grow the natural food supply for the farmed shellfish and to absorb the associated wastes.

Waste

Do leftover food or feces from farmed fish affect wild fish or pollute the marine environment?

All fish, whether wild or farmed, produce waste. However, the environmental effects of a fish farm are confined to a small area. Over the past 15 years, farm operation techniques have improved and technological upgrades have been put into place. Improved site guidelines (where to locate the farm), thorough environmental assessments and the high cost of feed have pushed aquaculture operators to greatly reduce the amount of waste from fish farms that reach the ocean floor. Provinces also enforce strict standards to minimize waste.

Farmed fish can convert food to energy very well, and today’s fish feed is easier to digest. Underwater video cameras are used to ensure that a minimal amount of uneaten food is settling beneath the net pen. The marine environment also has a large capacity to absorb organic materials, especially where there are strong ocean currents. Strategic location of fish farms, combined with mitigation measures such as allowing for periods of inactivity (site fallowing), help to minimize the environmental effects on the ocean floor.

Would land-based systems make the fish healthier and eliminate environmental concerns?

A land-based, closed containment system is not a practical alternative to the existing net-cage design because there are currently no closed systems designed for affordable, commercial use. To farm fish on land, large amounts of seawater would have to be pumped in. Because of the lack of hydroelectric power in remote locations, this would require the use of diesel-electric generators, which require large amounts of fossil fuel. There is also the issue of how to deal with the waste resulting from a closed system in a remote location.

DFO has reviewed studies with closed- containment systems and encourages research in innovative technologies that could assist the aquaculture industry. A few Canadian companies have experimented with different types of containment systems based on the "open" design currently used.

Escapes

Why has so much attention been paid to escaped farmed salmon in British Columbia? Wouldn’t the occasional "break-out" help boost wild salmon populations in decline?

Both Pacific and Atlantic salmon species are raised in British Columbia. There have been some concerns that farmed Atlantic salmon – a species that is not native to the Pacific coast – could escape and establish in the wild, thus harming wild salmon stocks by competing for habitat and food or by producing an unnatural hybrid species.

Throughout the 20th century, millions of Atlantic salmon were released throughout the west coast of the United States and Canada in an attempt to establish recreational and commercial fisheries. These attempts were not successful.

Research has shown that Atlantic salmon (farmed or wild) cannot successfully mate with wild Pacific salmon.

Why are Atlantic salmon farmed in BC?

The choice of which species, strain and stock of fish to raise is a business decision made by each aquaculture company. For a number of reasons, Atlantic salmon is more commonly farmed than the Pacific species. The following factors play into this choice:

• Atlantic salmon often have better growth and survival rates on the farm than Pacific salmon.
• Atlantic salmon are more easily cultured or docile than Pacific species.
• There is a strong international market demand for Atlantic salmon.
• Processors find that Atlantic salmon provide more meat and create less waste per fish.

In addition to Atlantic salmon, Pacific salmon species like Chinook and Coho are also raised in British Columbia. The Pacific species currently account for approximately 15 per cent of British Columbia production. Only Atlantic salmon is raised in Atlantic Canada. There are no Pacific salmon species raised in Canada outside of BC

How do fish escape from the net pen?

The most common causes of escape incidents are:

• infrastructure failure (e.g. a result of extreme weather damage)
• boat operations (e.g. collisions and propeller damage)
• predation (e.g. seals, sea lions)
• vandalism
• fish handling errors
• technical deficiencies (inadequate or damaged parts in cage systems)

It is mandatory to report escape incidents in British Columbia and Newfoundland and Labrador. In fact, BC’s Ministry of Agriculture and Lands has maintained a database of all reported escape events in Pacific waters since 1987.It is not mandatory for fish farm operators in New Brunswick or Nova Scotia to disclose to provincial authorities if an escape has occurred. However, many operators voluntarily disclose this information if a breach is discovered and work with their respective provincial fisheries departments to implement recovery plans to recapture the escaped fish. Advances in cage technology and management practices have helped the salmon farming industry to reduce the risk of escape.

Are escaped Atlantic farmed salmon damaging wild fish stocks in BC?

No. Fears that escaped Atlantic salmon farmed in BC would establish in the wild and harm wild salmon stocks have never materialized.

Can Atlantic salmon mate with Pacific salmon?

No, Atlantic salmon (farmed or wild) cannot mate successfully with wild Pacific salmon.

DFO’s Atlantic Salmon Watch Program suggests that there have been cases of escaped farmed Atlantic salmon surviving and then breeding with other escaped Atlantic salmon in BC streams. However, there is no evidence of established Atlantic salmon populations. Throughout the 20th century, even before commercial aquaculture was established in the Pacific Northwest, millions of juvenile Atlantic salmon were released along the west coast of the United States and Canada in an attempt to establish recreational and commercial fisheries. These attempts were not successful.

Do escaped Atlantic salmon compete with native Pacific salmon stocks for habitat and food?

No. To date, Atlantic salmon have been observed in three BC rivers – out of approximately 9,600 possible salmon-bearing rivers and streams. The numbers of Atlantic salmon counted each year in BC rivers are extraordinarily small (just 40 in 2003). Should a significant population of Atlantic salmon be observed in a river, the Atlantic Salmon Watch Program is mandated to remove the Atlantic salmon to reduce the possibility of colonization.

Studies have shown that escaped farmed salmon – in either the Pacific or Northwest Atlantic oceans – have a low survival rate in the wild because they are accustomed to being fed. The stomachs of recaptured farmed salmon are usually empty, therefore it is unlikely they compete for food with other fish or reproducing successfully.

What could happen if a farmed Atlantic salmon bred with a wild Atlantic salmon?

Little research concerning the genetic interactions between escaped farmed Atlantic salmon and wild Atlantic salmon has been conducted in North America. Research in Europe indicates that escaped farmed Atlantic salmon can affect the genetic make-up of wild Atlantic salmon populations. The degree of the impact depends on the relative number of escapees available to breed with the wild population.

We track the number of farmed fish that are found in four rivers of eastern Maine (United States) and the Magaguadavic River, New Brunswick. A recent report indicates that low numbers of farmed salmon have been counted – under 20 in each of the five rivers – in the last three years. Uncharacteristically, however, there was a large escape of farmed salmon reported in 2005, likely a result of sabotage to some net pens. Over three dozen farmed salmon were recaptured in two rivers during the annual Fall survey.

DFO has also monitored farm-origin fish in adult salmon returns to the Conne River and Little River in Newfoundland and Labrador since 1986. Very few farm raised Atlantic salmon have been observed (about 25) in these two rivers throughout 20 years of monitoring.

A small percentage (10 per cent) of juvenile salmon migrating out to sea from the Upper Salmon River in New Brunswick in 2003 were hybrids between North American and European salmon.

It is too early to speculate or draw conclusions on the overall impact of escaped farmed Atlantic salmon on other inner Bay of Fundy populations. We are conducting research on the Magaguadavic River population (an outer Bay of Fundy River) in collaboration with the Atlantic Salmon Federation. This should help us put more pieces of the puzzle in place.

Conservation concerns and rebuilding efforts with respect to wild Atlantic salmon population pre-date the widespread development of salmon aquaculture in Atlantic Canada. Causes of the decline in wild Atlantic salmon populations are unknown and are believed to be multi-faceted (survival at sea due to changing ocean conditions, fishing pressure, predation and habitat damage). Atlantic salmon populations are in decline all over Atlantic Canada, including many areas that do not have aquaculture operations.

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FEED

What type of food do farmed fish eat?

Farmed fish are fed small, nutrient-dense, dry pellets. Different feeds are used depending on the life stage of the fish.

The feeds have been developed to meet the nutritional requirements of healthy growing fish and contain a variety of ingredients, with fish protein meal and fish oil being the major ones. They also include vegetable proteins and cereals.

What type of food do shellfish eat?

The majority of shellfish farmed commercially in Canada are bivalve molluscs such as oysters and mussels. They depend on natural food sources from the ocean, notably microscope marine organisms (plankton). Bivalve shellfish are filter feeders. As water flows past the shellfish, it is pumped through the gills. Food particles in the water, like plankton, are trapped on the gill surfaces and are transferred to the "mouth" (located at the forward end of the gills) where they are sorted for digestion. Shellfish farmers do not have to feed their stock in open water as the food source is present, however, the availability of natural food sources and "carrying capacity" is a prime consideration when searching for a site to culture shellfish. In shellfish hatcheries farmers need to grow the microscopic algae required by the larval shellfish. In this case, the farmers are farming the shellfish and their food.

How does a fish farmer know how much food to feed the fish they grow?

Feed is the most significant cost factor in operating a salmon farm. Approximately 40 per cent of the salmon farm’s operating cost is spent on feed. Therefore, it is important to avoid wasting food.

Farms are equipped with monitoring systems, such as underwater video cameras and electronic devices for controlling feeding. This helps to ensure feed conversion ratios (the amount of food required to produce fish) are as low as possible.

How much feed would a farmed salmon eat over its lifetime?

Food consumption varies from one species to another. For example, salmon are efficient feed converters, requiring 1.2 kg of dry food to gain 1 kg of weight. One market-size farmed Atlantic salmon, weighing six kilograms (kg), would eat approximately 7.2 kg of feed over its lifetime.

The relatively efficient and low food-conversion ratio hinges on a number of factors. Domesticated fish, like animals raised using traditional terrestrial agriculture practices, have been selected for faster growth, higher survival, better feed efficiency and higher protein yield. The farm environment removes the biological requirement for the animal to search for food and avoid predators so that more food energy can be put toward growth.

Could a disease such as BSE be transmitted through farmed fish?

There has been no disease found in fish that poses a human health threat, as occurs with "mad cow disease." Many fish are carnivores and naturally prey on other fish species. Farmed fish are not fed protein sources from mammals, as are cows. The major ingredients in the feed fed to farmed fish are fish protein meal and fish oil.

I’ve heard that we are depleting wild fish stocks to feed farmed salmon. Is this true?

The species most used for fish oil and fish meal are small fish that are not generally used for human consumption. They are caught off the coast of Peru and Chile and in the North Atlantic, the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. North American salmon farming relies primarily on fish meal from South America. These stocks have been fished for fish meal for decades and are under rigorous and successful regulation to ensure sustainability. Aquaculture is one of several major consumers of fish meal.

All salmon are carnivores. In the wild, they eat a varied diet of fish and other aquatic organisms. Feeding farmed salmon a diet that includes fish meal is natural. It takes only about three kilograms of wild fish to produce one kilogram of farmed salmon while it takes 10 to 15 kilograms of wild fish to produce the same amount of wild salmon.

As well, in an effort to ensure that feed fisheries remain healthy and abundant, the industry has reduced their use of wild fish up to nearly 40 per cent in the last five years. They have done so by using more vegetable-based protein in the diets given to salmon. In fact, the salmon farming industry uses only about one-third of available fish meal and fish oil; the rest is used for terrestrial animal feeds, pet food and in fertilizers.

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DISEASE PREVENTION AND CONTROL

Cultured aquatic animals, like all other living organisms, are at risk of sickness and disease for a variety of reasons.

Do farmed fish spread disease to wild fish stocks?

Concerns have been raised about disease outbreaks in farms increasing levels of pathogens in the surrounding environment. Farmed aquatic animals can acquire infections such as sea lice from the surrounding marine or fresh water. Wild fish can carry the infection, but do not necessarily become sick from it. The reverse situation of farmed fish or shellfish infecting wild stocks is relatively rare.

Because of the significant investment made by farmers in their stocks, they react swiftly to the first sign of a disease outbreak to prevent its spread through the farm. In addition, most large fish farms have accredited veterinarians (provincial or private) who will intervene early they can call to help early intervention in a disease outbreak. If a disease is uncontrollable, the stock are removed as quickly as possible and disposed of under the supervision of veterinary and fisheries authorities.

What types of disease are present in Canadian waters?

Diseases affection Canadian salmon farming on both coasts are usually viral. Some bacterial diseases exist but can be managed through veterinary intervention. Shellfish molluscs are relatively disease free, although a couple of microscopic parasite infections affect oysters within limited zones on the east and west coasts.

What happens if disease is detected on a fish farm?

When diseases are detected, the farm operator may administer treatments under veterinary supervision. Veterinarians who treat cultured fish must comply with strict regulations set by Health Canada’s Veterinary Drug Directorate, which controls the use of all medicines used in animals grown for food production.

Farm operators across Canada are required, as a licensing condition, to have a fish health protection plan in place during the production cycle.

In cases where no treatment or alternative control strategies are possible, provinces may order, or farm managers choose, to depopulate the affected stocks and dispose of them in a manner that prevents further contact with either wild or farmed unaffected stocks.

Are farmed fish vaccinated?

Vaccines are available for some common fish viral and bacterial diseases. These are used commonly in areas where these diseases recur on a regular basis. Vaccine development has had a positive impact by reducing the need for antibiotic use on fish farms (for bacterial diseases).

Are farmed fish treated with antibiotics?

Some bacterial diseases can be effectively treated in farmed fish that are held in contained systems. If required, antibiotics are prescribed by licensed veterinarians. Health Canada has strict rules about drug use for animals grown for food production, including aquatic animals.

Maximum residue limits for each drug are set and must be met through appropriate withdrawal times following treatment before the fish can be harvested. The CFIA monitors fish at federal processing plants to ensure they do not exceed the levels set by Health Canada. Compared with other farmed animal production, aquaculture has few antibiotics approved for use and their application is usually expensive and for a limited period of time. Thus, the frequency of use in aquaculture is much lower than in more traditional animal production systems.

Are farmed fish given hormones to grow faster?

No. Farmed aquatic animals tend to grow at a faster rate than their wild counterparts because they receive a predictable supply of nutritious, high-quality food and are monitored regularly to ensure optimal health.

Sea Lice

What are sea lice?

Sea lice are small, salt-water crustaceans with soft bodies, which are ordinarily enclosed within a hard, protective outer shell. Sea lice have a rounded body shaped like a cylinder and have many legs for swimming and collecting food. The term "sea lice" actually refers to several species of copepods that infect fish. Sea lice attach to the outside of fish, either on skin, fins, or gills where they live and feed on the mucous layer secreted by the fish’s skin.

How many salmon farms are there in the Broughton Archipelago?

There are 22 approved or tenured salmon-farm sites in this area. However, depending on the individual production cycles of each farm, not all sites are in operation at one time. Approximately 15 salmon farms are currently stocked with fish.

Are fish farms in the Broughton Archipelago causing the dramatic increase in sea lice levels?

This is unlikely. Sea lice were not originally a salmon-farming phenomenon. Sea lice existed on wild salmon for tens of thousands of years before the first salmon farm was established in Canada and wild salmon have adapted to them.

There are two possible sources of sea lice in the Broughton Archipelago: natural sources such as other fish, or salmon farms. Last year’s studies indicate that the contribution from other fish (sticklebacks) was significant. However, there is no evidence to suggest that the increased sea lice levels negatively affected the growth and condition of infected adult pink salmon.

Sea lice levels can also be carefully controlled on the salmon farm thereby reducing the risk of infecting fish living outside the farm to a negligible amount.

What is the government prepared to do if evidence indicates that levels of sea lice are posing harm to wild stocks?

DFO is conducting multi-year research on sea lice. To date, the research has found no evidence that sea lice from salmon farms have caused wild salmon stocks to decline. If it does, we will act quickly to protect wild salmon stocks.

DFO works closely with the Province of British Columbia to ensure the salmon farming industry is managed in a responsible way, minimizing impacts on the environment and other marine life.

Sea lice levels can be properly controlled on the farm. The BC Ministry of Agriculture and Lands (BC MAL) has implemented a Sea Lice Management Strategy that requires each farm to submit a sea lice response plan that includes monitoring and reporting sea lice levels. They have set precautionary levels for sea lice on farms (average of three adult lice per fish). The BC salmon farming industry has been compliant with these levels and treat the fish to minimize the risk of infecting fish living outside the farm. Licensed aquatic veterinarians are consulted to administer environmentally sound treatments to infected fish when necessary. These reports are reviewed carefully by fish health officials in the BC MAL and DFO to examine if there is any harm or improvements, and for any additional measures required.

Will eating salmon infected with sea lice safe make me sick?

No, there is no risk to human health from sea lice. Sea lice live on the outside of the fish and feed on mucous on the skin of the fish. They would not affect human health if eaten, but the lice usually fall off or are cleaned off during harvesting or processing activities before the fish reach the consumer.

What sea lice research is being carried out by DFO?

As part of the pink salmon action plan announced in 2003, DFO is investing in a multi-year research on sea lice. Since 2003, DFO has conducted a marine monitoring program to determine the incidence and severity of sea lice infection rates of juvenile salmon in the Broughton Archipelago area. The program also examines whether corridors for migration of juvenile salmon exist in the complex passages in that region. The research is done in collaboration with other scientific agencies. It complements monitoring programs done by DFO to understand the interaction of salmon farming, sea lice, and wild salmon in the Broughton area. Visit our backgrounder entitled, "Scientific Research - 2005 Sea Lice Research Programs" for a detailed description of research activity currently underway.

Will the pink return numbers for this year tell us if the fallowing or emptying of some salmon farms in 2003 had an impact on their survival?

Pink salmon populations have varied greatly from year to year over the last 50 years. Stronger runs occur during odd-numbered years. Adult returns in 2004 to the area were approximately one million and consistent with our historical records for this type of run.

It should be noted that, coast-wide, pink returns were very high last year. In the Fraser River, numbers of returning pinks were the second highest ever recorded. Returns will probably be exceptional again in 2005.

Cause and effect have not been shown between lice infection and fish health, or for that matter, any other natural variable, thus it would not be scientifically defensible to speculate on the cause for an increase in returns.

Are there sea lice in other areas of the Pacific Ocean?

There are few data from most of the coast. When comparing geographic areas it is most important that equipment and sampling methods are comparable, that the studies were made at the same time and in the same seasonal cycle. Lepeophtheirus salmonis is a common parasite of Pacific salmon and has been reported throughout the Pacific in areas including the high seas and coastal of areas of Russia, Alaska and Canada.

Observations in Clayoquot Sound along the West Coast of Vancouver Island, where there are several salmon farms, have not shown elevated levels of sea lice. Observations in south Alaska, where there are no salmon farms, have shown higher levels of sea lice infestation on wild salmon than those observed by DFO in 2004 on domestic wild pink salmon in the Broughton Archipelago.

What is the sea lice situation on the fish farms in the Broughton?

As of November 2003, all salmon farm sites must have a Fish Health Management Plan. These plans are a condition of licence and are enforceable. All companies must provide the BC MAL with a plan for approval. Results of the sea lice monitoring program are reported on a quarterly basis to BC MAL and are posted on their website:

http://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/fisheries/health/Sealice_monitoring_results.htm

How do you respond to allegations that sea lice from fish farms in the area are killing juvenile pink salmon as they migrate out to sea?

Pink salmon populations have varied greatly from year to year over the last fifty years [see chart]. Our research to date has not shown that sea lice originating from fish farms are causing these fluctuations. Our findings from the 2003 monitoring study also did not show that juvenile salmon follow any predictable corridor, therefore it is difficult to draw linkages to sea lice infestation of juvenile salmon to salmon farms. Our analysis of the data suggests that sea lice "overwinter" or are being passed on to juvenile salmon from other fish species such as sticklebacks.

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FOOD SAFETY

Is it safe to eat farmed fish?

Yes. Eating farmed salmon does not pose a health risk. Claims that eating farmed salmon can cause health risks such as cancer are misleading and can frighten people unnecessarily and prevent them from enjoying the benefits of eating fish. Fish and seafood are an important part of a healthy and balanced diet.

Scientific studies indicate that trace amounts of PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) in both farmed and wild salmon are well within acceptable limits and similar to the amounts found throughout our food supply – in beef, chicken, pork and dairy products. PCBs and other contaminants are a legacy of industrial practices that find their way into the food chain in nearly all foods.

Health Canada and the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) work together to ensure that our food supply is safe. For example, the CFIA conducts rigorous inspections of fish processing establishments across Canada and they analyze food samples for impurities, drug residues or disease-causing agents. Health Canada sets standards and policies for the safety of food and veterinary drugs sold in Canada.

Is wild salmon more nutritious than farmed salmon?

Farmed salmon has just as much nutritional value as its wild counterpart. Farmed and wild salmon carry the same nutritional benefits. For example, all salmon is rich in omega-3 fatty acids – the "good fats" that help the body fight heart disease.

Does farmed fish contain mercury like wild fish such as tuna?

Scientific studies conducted by Health Canada indicate that trace amounts of many different types of contaminants, like mercury or PCBs, are found in both wild and farmed fish. Mercury is a naturally occurring element found in soil and rocks. It also exists in lakes, streams and oceans. In addition to natural sources, mercury is released into the environment by human activities such as pulp and paper processing, mining operations, and burning fossil fuels.

Health Canada has established a guideline level of 0.5 parts per million for mercury in most commercial fish, wild or farmed. Fish sold in Canada have mercury levels that fall far below this guideline, which is enforced by the CFIA. Click here to read Health Canada’s fact sheet entitled, "Information on mercury levels in fish."

Does farmed salmon taste different from wild salmon?

Consumer "taste tests" suggest that farmed Atlantic salmon does not look or taste any different from wild Atlantic salmon. There may be personal preferences in terms of texture or colour that may influence a person’s impression of farmed and wild salmon. It is important to note that different species of salmon have different colours and flavours. For instance, sockeye salmon has a distinctively reddish colour and a stronger taste than Atlantic salmon (wild or farmed), which is naturally lighter and milder.

Are colours or dyes used in farmed salmon?

Farmed salmon are not injected with dye or artificial colours. Both wild and farmed salmon get their characteristic reddish colour from pigments in their food. These pigments are responsible for many of the natural red, orange and yellow hues in food products – such as beta–carotene in carrots. Salmon, like people, need these pigments for healthy growth and must get these nutrients through their diet.

Wild salmon hunt and eat small crustaceans like shrimp with high levels of natural pigments. Farmed fish rely on feed supplements which include two pigments (astaxanthin and canthaxanthin) to provide them with the proper nutrition and colour. Their use has been approved in Canada by the CFIA for the last 15 years.

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EMPLOYMENT & ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Is aquaculture a government-run or private/for-profit business?

Fish, shellfish and marine plant operations are for-profit businesses and are privately owned, either by individuals or corporations. Aquaculture licences are required to legally operate the fish or shellfish farm. Each fish or shellfish farm operates on leased space, issued by the appropriate provincial or federal authority.

Are there recreational opportunities to catch cultured fish?

Yes. There are recreational or "U-Fish" operations operating in Alberta, Ontario, Quebec, and some Atlantic provinces. The fish are raised in dugouts, ponds or even small lakes. This form of fishing is common in Europe and the coastal areas of North America.

In Canada, these sites are regulated and licensed by the province in which they operate. U-fish farmers must comply with environmental, animal welfare and food-safety legislation under provincial and federal law.

How many jobs are there in the Canadian aquaculture industry?

There are between 5,000 and 6,000 full-time jobs in the aquaculture industry. If you take into account the amount of jobs in the economic spin-offs created by aquaculture (supplies, feed producers, etc.), the industry employs about 14,000 people in total.

What percentage does aquaculture contribute to Canada’s total fish and seafood production?

Cultured fish and seafood comprises 15 per cent of total Canadian production. In 2004, total farmed fish and seafood products were valued at about C$527 million. The value of total exports was C$425 million.

Does aquaculture really create jobs for people who live in coastal communities?

Yes. Ninety-five percent of all jobs related to the aquaculture industry are in rural, coastal, and remote communities across Canada. The majority of these jobs employ people who are under forty years of age.

Is there really a future for aquaculture – it’s not just a fly-by-night industry to meet current demand?

Aquaculture has emerged as an increasingly important contributor to supply the global demand for fish and seafood over the last 15 years. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations says the world’s growing population will significantly increase the demand for fish and seafood by 2030. The global aquaculture industry currently represents 29 per cent of the volume and 38 per cent of the value of global fish landings.

What are the start-up costs for salmon farm site?

The start-up cost for an average commercial-size salmon farm site is approximately C$3 million.

What are the start-up costs for a shellfish farm site?

The start-up cost for an average commercial-size mussel or oyster site is approximately C$150,000.

How do I learn more about the business side of aquaculture? Are there any start-up programs for people looking to get into the business?

There are national and provincial industry associations that are best suited to provide information to people interested in learning more about the business of aquaculture. Visit the Links section to find out who they are and how to contact them.

The Atlantic Canada Opportunities Agency, Western Economic Diversification Canada, and Industry Canada are the main federal agencies that promote the development of small- and medium-sized businesses.

What kind of training do I need to get a job in the aquaculture industry?

The aquaculture industry is in the unique position of being able to offer a variety of challenging career choices for people who wish to work in remote, rural or coastal communities. Employment opportunities are available for scientists, environmental managers and technicians, veterinarians and fish health specialists, farm and hatchery workers, boat captains and deckhands, manufacturing and processing workers, site-operation managers as well as sales, marketing and administrative professionals.

There are a wide variety of aquaculture-specific programs at both the undergraduate and graduate level offered at colleges, university-colleges and universities across Canada. In fact, Canadian institutions are recognized leaders in transferring knowledge and skills from laboratory and classroom to production site. E-learning and distance education using the latest information and communications technologies are training the next generation of aquatic farmers. The Marine Institute at Memorial University of Newfoundland, the Atlantic Veterinary College at the University of Prince Edward Island, the Nova Scotia Agricultural College, the New Brunswick Community College – St. Andrews, the Centre for Aquaculture and Environmental Research at the University of British Columbia, the University of Guelph and Malaspina University-College are examples of internationally recognized leaders in aquaculture education and training.

Some companies may provide on-the-job training (first aid, workplace health and safety, and emergency response) and encourage continuous learning. They are also a source of information on skills required and where training programs are offered.

Where does Canada rank in relation to other countries in aquaculture production?

Canada ranks 22nd (2002, FAO) among aquaculture producing nations and accounts for less than one-third of 1 per cent of global farmed fish and seafood production.

Within the next 15 years, it is projected that the Canadian aquaculture sector, growing at 10 to 15 per cent annually, could generate in excess of C$2.8 billion annually, providing year-round employment for people in coastal, rural and Aboriginal communities. Canada has the potential to be in the top three global competitors in aquaculture production.

Who sets the price for wild or farmed salmon and how do they come up with the amount?

Prices are influenced by international market forces and are set by individual retailers, such as your local grocery store or fish shop.

Various species of wild Pacific salmon or shellfish are available on a seasonal basis, depending on the time of year, size of the population or run for that given year, location of the fishery and means by which the fish are caught (commercial, recreational, or in limited cases, a commercially-based First Nations fishery). Prices fluctuate depending on the supply and demand.

Fresh cultured fish and shellfish, on the other hand, are usually available year-round. Because of the predictability of quality and supply, the price tends to be stable.

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Last Updated : 2007-03-28

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