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A Handbook for Health and Social Service Providers and Educators on Children Exposed to Woman Abuse/Family Violence
We are very pleased to have the opportunity, with funding provided by the Family Violence Prevention Unit of Health Canada, to write this handbook, as we believe it marks another step forward in addressing the issue of children exposed to woman abuse in Canadian communities. We were greatly assisted in our work by a national panel of experts on the issue of woman abuse and children exposed to woman abuse. The suggestions of the panel, which convened in London, Ontario on March 5, 1998, were invaluable, and as much as possible we incorporated them in our work. The national panel members were: Louise Marie Bouchard Gwyn Davies Helen Dempster Claudette Dumont-Smith Levonty Kazarian Deborah Sinclair Janet Wagar
Who
Should Read This Handbook? Children who are exposed to woman abuse experience serious detrimental effects with regard to their health, safety, behaviour, emotional and social development, and educational progress. This is an issue that is important in the practice of family physicians, children's mental health workers, psychologists, social workers, child protective service workers, teachers, school administrators, day-care providers, public health nurses, school nurses, midwives, pediatricians, obstetricians, community outreach workers, women's advocates, professors in professional schools and community colleges, family and marital therapists, child custody and access assessors, and the many others who make up the network of service providers in our communities. What
Is Childhood Exposure to Woman Abuse/Family Violence? Children exposed to woman abuse see, hear, and are aware of violence against their mother by their father or their mother's partner. They may witness the abuse directly, or may be around a corner, up the stairs, or trying to sleep in their beds, or they may see the aftermath of the abuse. They see and hear scenes that range from verbal abuse to sexual abuse, and physical abuse including slapping and pushing, severe beatings, and assaults with weapons. They almost always hear verbal abuse and insults, which accompany the physical abuse, and which occurs at other times. There is often an atmosphere of severe lack of respect for their mother by the abuser, and their mother is disempowered in many ways. The family environment in which these children live is a "toxic environment" in which the children's well-being and development are severely compromised in many instances. Even when an incident of physical abuse is not occurring, there is often an atmosphere of fear, anxiety, anger and tension that pervades the family home. Power and control are at the centre of abusive relationships. The abuser uses abusive tactics to maintain his power and control over the victim. Abusive tactics include:
There is often authoritarian rule by the father or male partner, and the mother is not allowed to make decisions in the family. The woman may come to experience low self-esteem, depression, anxiety and feelings of hopelessness and self-blame, which affect her coping skills and her parenting abilities. A code of secrecy is often enforced, so the abuse is not revealed to those outside the family. Children are taught not to tell about the abuse, and may be threatened with punishment if they do tell. Some families may move frequently whenever detection becomes likely, while other families may live in the same neighbourhood for years, with no one in the community taking action to assist the victims. In homes where woman abuse is occurring, children are at increased risk of physical and sexual abuse by the abuser of their mother. Throughout this manual, we will focus on domestic violence with a father as a batterer and a mother as a victim because this scenario represents the majority of cases in the context of the abuse of power and control. We do recognize that there are cases of husbands being abused (and that there are parallel impacts on child witnesses); however, all available evidence indicates that such cases constitute a minority, especially in terms of the qualitative effects on victims. How Many Children Are Exposed to Woman Abuse?
This translates into 11% to 23% of all Canadian children witnessing some violence against their mother in the home. A conservative estimate is that between two and six children in each school classroom have witnessed some form of woman abuse in the home in the past year. How Are Children Affected by Exposure to Woman Abuse: An Overview
Why
Hasn't This Issue Been Recognized in the Training of Health and Social
Service Providers and Teachers? What
Can Health and Social Service Providers and Educators Do About Children
Exposed to Woman Abuse? What
Can I Do, as a Health or Social Service Provider or Educator, to Address
This Issue?
Effective Intervention for Children Cannot Be Separated from Effective Responses to Woman Abuse Itself
Children
Who Witness Woman Abuse: Why Take Action? The purpose of this handbook is to help communities and front-line professionals respond more effectively to children who witness violence. By implementing more sensitive and early intervention strategies, communities may be able to reduce the immediate and longer-term impact of such traumatic experiences. The plight of these children deserves special attention because of their pain and suffering alone. Beyond these considerations, the community has an opportunity to target a high-risk group that may represent the next generation of abusive husbands and their partners. In addition, children who witness violence in the home are at a greater risk of perpetrating assaults in the community and continuing to do so as adults. At a time when everything is assessed in terms of dollars and growing debts, it is clear that the billions of dollars attributed to costs of violence against women in their homes needs to be addressed. Perhaps no family violence prevention plan is more imperative than a focused and well-coordinated approach to child witnesses to violence. Children living with woman abuse is not a new social issue. Although the research and advocacy for this population has emerged only in the past decade, these children have represented a challenge for many social service, health, child care and education service providers. Child protection workers have increasingly seen the overlap between witnessing violence and other forms of child maltreatment. Some children who have been sexually abused by their stepfather delay disclosure for many years when they also experience the terror of witnessing their mother being physically and verbally abused. Fear reinforces silence. Adolescents who present anxiety, depression, or somatic concerns to their family doctor or school nurse may be living with secrets about the violence in their family. The child who is hyperactive and non-compliant in school and headed for a strong dose of Ritalin may be acting out the scenes from the family battleground and dealing with symptoms of PTSD. The bully in the day-care centre who is the focus of concern by staff and complaints by other parents may be modelling the abuse of power and control that he sees every day in his household. The need for this handbook is predicated on some of the above examples of child witnesses to violence that are overlooked, misdiagnosed, or, in some cases, receiving the wrong intervention. In many cases, these children are re-victimized when their problems are minimized or compounded by ignorance. For example, the judge who orders joint custody and alternate week access for a father who abused the children's mother but never abused the children directly may create a host of new crises for an abused woman and her children. The young offender who is charged with an assault against his girlfriend or male peers, and sent off to a "boot camp" to learn the benefits of strict discipline may be missing the important lessons if he was raised by an abusive father. Unfortunately, there are countless examples like these that suggest that child witnesses to violence are not just a specialized concern for shelter staff and police officers but a fundamental concern for all front-line professionals and community service workers intervening with children and their families. Given the state of clinical and research information now available on this issue, ignorance is no longer a valid defence for a lack of appropriate community responses. Incidence and Prevalence of Children Exposed to Woman Abuse Canada has produced the most comprehensive survey about violence against women that includes estimates about the number of children who witness violence at home (Johnson, 1996). This study addressed both the lifetime prevalence and the annual incidence of woman abuse. From the initial survey, it was reported that 29% of all Canadian women experience physical or sexual violence at the hands of a marital partner (common-law unions included) at some time in their life after the age of 18. Almost 4 in 10 women (39%) reported that their children witnessed the violence, which would mean that at least two million children (assuming an average of two children in a family) would have been exposed to violence. More than 1.2 million children would have witnessed extreme forms of violence, including physical injury, and in most of the cases (1,040,000) the mother would have feared for her life (Johnson, 1996). This figure represents an underestimate of the real prevalence, as most researchers in this field agree, that parents tend to underestimate what children have been exposed to in their homes and, even in cases where children may not have been eye witnesses to an assault, they are still affected by the climate of fear in their family and the impact of violence on their mother (e.g., Jaffe, Wolfe and Wilson, 1990). An extension of asking about the prevalence of children who witness violence is the question of how many adults have witnessed violence as children in their family of origin. According to the Violence Against Women (VAW) Survey, approximately 17% of women over the age of 18 indicate that they witnessed their father assault their mother (1,785,000 women 18 years of age or older) (Rodgers, 1994). In addition, women reported that 9% of their current partners and 17% of their former partners witnessed violence in their homes. This experience was associated with women facing more severe and repeated violence. For example, if a woman's father-in-law was violent toward her mother-in-law, she was three times more likely to experience physical and sexual abuse in a marriage compared to women who married men with non-violent fathers (12% vs. 36%). These women were more likely to be beaten, choked, threatened with a knife or gun, and to experience physical injuries (Johnson, 1996). Every year, more children are exposed to woman abuse. The annual incidence of children witnessing violence in any one year in Canada is approximately 160,000, based on a yearly rate of 3% of women (201,000) experiencing abuse in a marriage, 39% witnessing it by children, and an average of two children in a family (Johnson, 1996). Again, this estimate is extremely conservative, given the under-reporting by adults about what children witness. As well, a significant number of women may be abused by other intimate partners (e.g., male dating partners, women in same sex relationships) who are not captured by the VAW Survey category of married/common-law partners. A more accurate number is closer to 500,000 children and adolescents. In light of the potential short- and long-term impact of witnessing violence, the significant incidence and prevalence of this problem has widespread implications. Given that approximately 60% of child witnesses suffer from PTSD (Lehmann, 1997), which indicates ongoing emotional and behaviour difficulties after the violence is over, the impact on child witnesses is severe. The potential impact on the next generation of marriages is profound. Although this handbook focuses on children who are exposed to violence, research and experience indicate that there is a great deal of overlap among different forms of violence in a family. For example, in 30% to 40% of families where woman abuse occurs, children may also be physically or sexually abused. A high incidence of sibling abuse has also been reported. In studies that focus on child physical and sexual abuse, about half of the cases involve abuse of the children's mother. When studies have examined the lifetime prevalence of abuse against girls and women, including all forms of intrafamilial and extrafamilial sexual and physical abuse, the vast majority of individuals report a history of violence (Canadian Panel on Violence Against Women, 1993), which speaks volumes about the extensive nature of violence.
Effects on Children Exposed to Woman Abuse Until recently, children who were exposed to family violence were not considered to be children who had special needs or who were in need of protection. Now, there is a strong body of research that indicates the severe psychological and behavioural after-effects of witnessing family violence, and the deleterious effects on children's social and academic development (e.g., Hughes, 1988; Fantuzzo and Lindquist, 1989; Jaffe, Wolfe and Wilson, 1990; Peled, Jaffe and Edleson, 1995; Sudermann and Jaffe, 1995). The effects are sufficiently serious that these children are now considered in need of protection under child welfare legislation in an increasing number of jurisdictions (Echlin and Marshall, 1995). There are a number of main effects of witnessing family violence, and some more subtle effects. Among the best documented and most notable effects are increased acting out and aggressive behaviour, as well as depression and anxiety. A. Aggressive
and Non-compliant Behaviour B. Emotional
and Internalizing Problems C. Effects
on Social and Academic Development Some community workers have noted that some young women from culturally diverse immigrant groups who live in violent homes may hurry through their education, striving for an early but culturally approved means of escape from the family setting, such as an early marriage, or taking a job before they have achieved all they could have in terms of educational level (Kazarian and Kazarian, 1998). D. Post-Traumatic
Stress Disorder E. Subtle
symptoms Child Symptoms of Exposure to Woman Abuse at Different Developmental Levels PreNatal Birth
to Two The work of Perry (1995) on the effects of violent environments on very young children suggests that permanent negative changes in the child's brain and neural development occur when a child is exposed to woman abuse and other forms of violence at these ages. Perry (1995) states that exposure to traumatic violence will alter the developing CNS (central nervous system), predisposing the individual to more impulsive, reactive, and violent behaviour. Some of the behavioural results at later ages may include hypervigilance to perceived threats, and overresponsivity (aggression) when aggressive acts by others are anticipated. While further research is required in this area, the research does point to the very serious nature of exposure by infants and young children to woman abuse. Preschoolers School
Children Aged 6 to 11 Adolescents Long-term
Effects
Screening for Exposure to Woman Abuse Front-line professionals who come into contact with abused women and their children have a unique opportunity to implement early intervention strategies. In some cases, it may be an opportunity to develop a safety plan when the violence has escalated and when imminent or ongoing danger of personal harm is apparent. At other times, professionals assisting children and youth may have some indications or concerns that their clients are exposed to woman abuse in the home, but they may not be fully confident of their assessment. Initial
Screening of Child Symptoms
Often, children want someone outside the family to find out about the family problems and will offer any number of clues through their behaviour, or through what they share in their journals or conversations. Mothers as well as their children may not disclose information upon the first request, but helpful seeds are being planted that may lead to delayed disclosure about violence at home. If your suspicions appear to be well founded and you have other sources of information from third parties (e.g., high school friends expressing concern), you may want to express questions more directly. For example, family doctors (e.g., Brown et al., 1996) and emergency room nurses and doctors (e.g., Wright, Wright and Issac, 1997) have developed tools, standard protocols, and questions that are very direct about violence when the suspicion of abuse is strong. For example, the following questions are suggested.
These questions are intended for use as an initial screening tool. Take
Immediate Steps When Disclosure Is Made Awareness about the link between exposure to woman abuse and serious adjustment problems is a starting point. To give an example of how much work is still to be done in this area, two out of three pediatric emergency medicine fellows believed that responding to battered mothers did not belong to the practice of pediatrics (Wright, Wright and Isaac, 1997). Raise
Questions About Witnessing Violence When Emotional and Behavioural Symptoms
are Present in Children Interviewing Children Who May Be Exposed to Family Violence The following questions may be useful in situations where the service provider wishes to screen for exposure to woman abuse. These questions should, of course, be used in conjunction with other techniques and sources of information.
Crisis Intervention/Safety Planning WHAT to say if a child discloses witnessing woman abuse
WHAT to do when a child discloses
After safety planning has been done, refer the child to group or individual therapy to deal with the experience of witnessing abuse, and to engage in secondary prevention for future violent situations. Assessment of Children Exposed to Woman Abuse Formal assessment of children exposed to woman abuse may best be undertaken by children's mental health professionals. The following section is most relevant to psychologists, psychiatrists and social workers working in settings where formal child assessment is undertaken. Nevertheless, aspects of the assessment process will also be relevant to other professionals. Child custody and access assessors should be aware of the issues outlined here if they are to adequately carry out assessments of children who have been exposed to woman abuse. Children who are referred to groups for children exposed to woman abuse may require a less extensive assessment, which will be part of the pre-group intake process. However, children who have severe symptoms, or who have been exposed to extreme and repeated violence, should be referred, where possible, for more extensive assessment and therapy. Building
Rapport and Breaking the Code of Secrecy Be Informed
About the Abuse Whenever Possible Using
Multiple Assessment Perspectives (Note: The following instruments would of course be administered by those qualified to interpret and understand the limitations of psychological tests. Cultural sensitivity is also required in using these assessment measures, as children from some cultural groups may not be used to responding to questions about their personal concerns and issues in this way.) General
Assessment Instruments: Emotional and Behavioural Problems Specific Assessment Tools Violence witnessed Post-traumatic stress, dissociation Another instrument geared to post-traumatic stress symptoms is the Child Impact of Traumatic Events Scale-Family Violence Form (CITES-FVF) (Wolfe and Lehmann, 1992). In addition to 25 items addressing trauma symptoms, the CITES-FVF measures attributions of dangerous world, personal vulnerability, and self-blame/guilt. Depression Witnessing woman abuse, attitudes toward interpersonal violence Another relevant instrument is an interview guide entitled the Child Witness to Violence Interview (Jaffe, Wolfe and Wilson, 1990). This interview format covers attitudes and responses to anger by the child, and safety skills and attitudes around responsibility for violence. For older teens, a questionnaire entitled the London Family Court Clinic Questionnaire on Violence in Relationships (Jaffe, Sudermann and Reitzel, 1989; Jaffe, Sudermann, Reitzel and Killip, 1992) may be useful with regard to assessing attitudes and beliefs around woman abuse in general, as well as attitudes toward dating violence. Personal strengths and supports
The assessment process can be employed as a treatment readiness intervention to help the child or adolescent feel more comfortable when talking about the violence and to help highlight the availability of group or individual therapy to assist the young person in overcoming the trauma he or she has experienced. Treatment and Support for Children Exposed to Woman Abuse/Family Violence
Forms
of Intervention Indicators
for Group or Individual Therapy However, there are some children who may not be ready for a group intervention. These include:
Group
Therapy
Age
Grouping Group
Leaders Involvement
of Mothers/Non-Offending Caregivers Other group models have concurrent groups for mothers and children. Yet another model involves mothers and children jointly in groups
of about three Individual
Therapy for Children Other clinicians prefer play therapy, especially for younger children,
or art therapy (Malchiodi, 1990). These modalities may be used together
with interpretations and discussion. Supporting Mothers Both research and clinical findings consistently point to the strong relationship between the adjustment of child witnesses to violence and the adjustment of their abused mothers (e.g., Jaffe, Wolfe and Wilson, 1990; Holden et al., 1998). In general, the more depressed, anxious, isolated and traumatized an abused woman is, the greater the level of her children's emotional and behavioural problems. This finding means that counselling and support for the abused mother offer an indirect benefit to her children. The issues that an abused mother may face include:
Offering support to an abused mother may include the following:
Several researchers and clinicians have stressed that abused women are not poor mothers as many stereotypes would suggest (e.g., Blinkoff, 1995; Holden et al., 1998). The alternative view offered is that for the most part these women are survivors who require community support and resources to manage the trauma of intimate violence. Their children benefit from community efforts that ensure a safety plan, healing and re-establishing a new family system that will not condone violence. Sample
Questions for Interviewing Mothers
Groups
for Abused Mothers (on parenting issues) To address some of these issues, some organizations offer special parenting support groups for mothers. These include topics such as understanding and defining abuse, noting the effects on children's self-care and self-esteem, re-establishing effective communication with children and promoting non-violent family relationships. Mutual support around custody and access issues and navigating the legal and community service systems may also be included. Making these groups very supportive, nurturing and empowering is a good way to enable women to support and nurture children (Thornton, Bartoletto and Van Dieten, 1996). Resources for Therapy with Children and Their Mothers Group Treatment Resources B.C./Yukon Society of Interval and Transition Houses (Undated) Children
Who Witness Abuse Group Program. Lesson plans/activities for preschool-aged
children. Compiled by Judy Kerr, John McKenzie-Cooper and Carol Elliot,
Vancouver, BC: The Society. B.C./Yukon Society of Transition Houses (1996) Records Management
Guidelines Addendum for CWWA Programs. Gisela Ruebesaat, Sharon White
and Greta Smith, Vancouver, B.C./Yukon Society of Transition Houses (1994) Children's Activities
Contributed by Participants in Children Who Witness Abuse Training.
Vancouver, BC: The Society. Eriksen, J., Henderson, A., Davidson, M., and Ogden, S. (1997) Breaking
the Cycle: A Parenting Guide for Single Mothers of Children Who Have Witnessed
Domestic Violence. Vancouver, BC. Ganley, A. L., and Schechter, S. (1996) Domestic Violence: A National
Curriculum for Children's Protective Services. Family Violence Prevention
Fund, 383 Rhode Island Street, Suite 304, Loosley, S., Bentley, L., Rabenstein, S., and Sudermann, M. (1997) Group
Treatment for Children Who Witness Woman Abuse. London, ON: Community
Group Treatment Program. Available from: Children's Aid Society of London
and Middlesex, Attention Larry Marshall, P.O. Box 6010, Depot 1, London,
ON N5W 5R6, Peled, E., and Edleson, J. L. (1995) Process and Outcome in Small Groups for Children of Battered Women. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Rabenstein, S., and Lehmann, P. (in press) Mothers and children together: a family group treatment approach. In B. Geffner, P. G. Jaffe, and M. Sudermann (eds.), Children Exposed to Woman Abuse: Current Issues in Research, Interventions, Prevention and Policy Development. Binghampton, NY: Haworth Press. Sudermann, M. (1995) Children's Group Questionnaire. A questionnaire designed to evaluate children's responses to group intervention. Available from London Family Court Clinic, 254 Pall Mall St., London, ON N6A 5P6. In E. Peled, P. G. Jaffe, and J. L. Edleson (eds.), Ending the Cycle of Violence: Community Responses to Children of Battered Women (Chap. 5). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Thornton, M., Bartoletto, L., and Van Dieten, M. (1996) Growing Together: Women's Facilitation Manual. Ottawa, ON: John Howard Society of Ottawa-Carleton. Vancouver and Lower Mainland Multicultural Family Support Services Society (1993) Through the Eyes of a Child: An Introductory Manual on the Impact of Family Violence for Multicultural Home School Workers. Vancouver, BC: Naomi Straddon. Za-geh-do-win Information Clearinghouse. Information about health, healing and family violence for Aboriginal communities in Ontario. Za-geh-do-win, P.O. Box 40, Naughton, ON P0M 2M0, Tel.: (705) 692-0420. Individual Treatment Resources Malchiodi, C. (1990) Breaking the Silence: Art Therapy with Children from Violent Homes. New York: Brunner Masel. Ministry of Women's Equality (draft 1996) "Children Who Witness Abuse Counselling Practice Guidelines." Victoria, BC: B.C./Yukon Society of Transition Houses. Silvern, L., Karyl, J., and Landis, T. Y. (1995) Individual psychotherapy for the traumatized children of abused women. In E. Peled, P. G. Jaffe and J. Edleson (eds.), Ending the Cycle of Violence: Community Responses to Children of Battered Women. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Child Custody and Access Issues Many abused women and their children find themselves re-victimized by the justice system after separation. Rather than ending the violence, women face a host of new problems that range from escalating separation violence to efforts to prove them unfit mothers and place the children in the care of the batterer. Underpinning many of these issues is a lack of understanding about the impact of witnessing violence. Many legal and mental health professionals may try to minimize the impact of abuse and suggest that an individual can be an abusive husband but a good father. This belief is inconsistent with our knowledge of the trauma children suffer in these circumstances. The following chart, reproduced with permission of the Family Violence Prevention Fund in San Francisco, is a synopsis of the unique issues that face women and children in custody and access disputes in a violent relationship rather than a non-violent marriage and separation. The chart highlights the following points:
Custody and access disputes require a great deal of coordinated effort among legal and mental health/social service professionals as well as women's advocates. Important programs to develop to avoid re-victimizing women and children are:
Community Coordination and Accountability No one agency, institution or care provider can meet all the needs of a child or family suffering from woman abuse. Inter-agency collaboration, coordination and accountability are needed for comprehensive responses to children exposed to woman abuse/family violence. One of the most important avenues for developing an effective community response to children who have witnessed woman abuse is a coordinating committee. Agencies and services that need to be included for effective services include:
Other groups, such as religious community leaders, can be important to include depending on community need. The roles of a coordinating committee can include discussing community needs and service gaps; planning services; establishing collaborations to provide services; discussing and resolving inter-agency and community problems in service provision; sharing information; and developing inter-agency protocols on meeting the needs of children who have witnessed woman abuse. Undertaking joint special initiatives, such as educating the public about the issue of children who witness woman abuse or sponsoring professional development events on the issue, can also be important. Policy Considerations for Agencies Agencies' policies are important to the implementation of services for children who have witnessed woman abuse. For example, child and family mental health centres and marital counsellors need to have policies on screening for family violence/woman abuse, and then not engage in conjoint family or marital treatment if abuse is ongoing or threatened. Policies around interviewing mothers in a safe (separate) manner and not releasing information to a batterer that will harm the children are important. Schools need to have appropriate policies regarding children who are witnessing woman abuse. For example, information on where a mother has relocated with the children may need to be protected by not revealing the children's new address to the father, even though schools would usually be required to give fathers information in their children's file. Schools may also wish to develop protocols on interviewing mothers when children have disclosed witnessing woman abuse at home. Schools may wish to develop policies regarding the release of children to the care of parents when there has been a marital separation. It is recommended that schools obtain legal advice on these policies in order to draft them properly, taking into account the role of legal orders on child custody and access, as well as the role of restraining orders, which are intended to prevent harassment and stalking of victims of woman abuse. The most difficult and dangerous time for women in this situation is often the time immediately following a separation, when the woman may not yet have been able to obtain legal custody or even legal interim custody of the children. In such situations, coordination between school, police and shelter services may be needed to ensure the safety of children. Shelters may wish to establish protocols with schools receiving children who are at a shelter so the school can be informed of the children's special needs while protecting their safety. Specific protocols are best developed at the local level, with the assistance of a coordinating committee. All agencies need to have policies around coordination with other services in the community, and on providing information on safety and emergency services to women who are victims and children who are witnesses in battering situations. Professional Development Session Many professionals have not had the opportunity to be trained regarding
the issue of children exposed to woman abuse. The following outline offers
a plan for a professional development session, which can be adapted for
different professions and situations, depending on the material included.
This workshop outline is for a full-day format, but may be adapted to
a half-day format by shortening or omitting some of the activities. Participants
can be drawn from the same organization or department, or from a cross
section of organizations and community agencies that wish to learn about
this issue and plan together to improve services.
Prevention How can we prevent the next generation of men who believe that violence is the key to maintaining respect in their intimate relationships? Part of the answer lies in early intervention strategies with children who grow up witnessing violence. The rest of the answer has to be a fundamental change in our society's silent tolerance of this problem. This change can start in our schools where partnerships with parents and community agencies offer some hope for developing new attitudes and behaviours that promote healthy relationships and non-violent conflict resolution ideals. Violence is everyone's business. Our worry cannot be contained to those students in violent homes but has to be focused on all their friends and neighbours who may have to be the key support system and change agents. To paraphrase an old saying, "it takes a whole village to promote zero tolerance for violence." Where do we start with such an ambitious program? Every school in Canada
is concerned about children's education in a safe and nurturing environment.
Learning cannot take place in a climate of fear-either in the hallways
and playgrounds or at home the night before the bell rings. More and more
parents are concerned about youth violence, especially with the heightened
media spotlight on tragic incidents across the country. However, few parents
make the connection between what they read in the paper as isolated events
and a society that condones violence in many forms, even as a form of
entertainment. The time is ripe for a clear commitment by all schools
to develop consistent and comprehensive policies and programs to make
zero tolerance for violence A report card on these initiatives should include the following outcomes: A. Naming
the Violence B. Understanding
the Causes of Violence C. Effective
Interventions for Violence or Abusive Situations at School D. Intervening
on Behalf of Children Who Witness Violence at Home E. Developing
Strategies to End Violence and Offering Children Alternative Attitudes
and Behaviours A.S.A.P. A.S.A.P. is designed to:
A.S.A.P. deals with the following issues:
There are a number of exciting initiatives across Canada in the area of violence prevention. A.S.A.P. is but one example and our reference section offers many more. At the core of these efforts should be a community report card that assesses a community's progress on the above outlined element: naming the violence; understanding the causes of violence; effective interventions for violence or abusive situations at school; intervening on behalf of children who witness violence at home; and developing strategies to end violence and offering children alternative attitudes and behaviours. It is hoped that your community schools and school system receive a passing grade in violence prevention. A failing grade is not acceptable given the seriousness of these issues and the plight of too many students who see few alternatives to violence. References and Further Reading Achenbach, T. M., and Edelbrook, C. S. (1983) Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist and Revised Child Behavior Profile. Burlington, VT: University Associates in Psychiatry. Alessi, J. J., and Hearn, K. (1984) Group treatment of children in shelters for battered women. In A. R. Roberts (ed.), Battered Women and Their Families. New York: Springer. American Medical Association. (1992) Violence against women. Journal of the American Medical Association, 267(23): 107-112. American Psychiatric Association. (1994) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-IV (4th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. Arroyo, W. and Eth, S. (1995) Assessment following violence-witnessing trauma. In E. Peled, P. G. Jaffe, and J. L. Edleson (eds.), Ending the Cycle of Violence: Community Responses to Children of Battered Women. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Attala, J. M., Bauza, K., Pratt, H., and Vieira, D. (1995) Integrative review of effects on children of witnessing domestic violence. Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing, 18: 63-172. Bard, M. (1970) Role of law enforcement in the helping system. In J. Monahan (ed.), Community Mental Health and the Criminal Justice System. Elmsford, NJ: Pergamon Press. Barnett, E. R., Pittman, C. B., Ragan, C. K., and Salus, M. K. (1980) Family Violence: Intervention Strategies. (DHHS Publication No. OHDS 80-30258.) Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Berman, H. (In press) The relevance of narrative research with children who witness war and children who witness woman abuse. In R. Geffner, P. G. Jaffe, and M. Sudermann (eds.), Children Exposed to Family Violence: Current Issues in Research Intervention, Prevention and Policy Development. Binghampton, NY: Haworth Press. Blinkoff, J. (1995) Empowering battered women as mothers. In E. Peled, P. G. Jaffe, and J. L. Edleson (eds.), Ending the Cycle of Violence-Community Responses to Children of Battered Women, pp. 97-105, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Briere, J. (1996) Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation/Harcourt Brace. Brown, J. B., Lent, B., Brett, P. J., Sas, G., and Pederson, L. L. (1996) Development of the woman abuse screening tool for use in family practice. Family Medicine, 28: 422-428. Campbell, J. (1995) Assessing Dangerousness: Violence by Sexual Offenders, Batterers and Child Abusers. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Canadian Panel on Violence Against Women. (1993) Changing the Landscape: Ending Violence-Achieving Equality. Final Report of the Canadian Panel on Violence Against Women. Ottawa, ON: Supply and Services Canada. Carlson, B. E. (1984) Children's observations of inter-parental violence. In A. R. Roberts (ed.), Battered Women and Their Families. New York: Springer. Carlson, E. B. (1997) Trauma Assessments: A Clinician's Guide. New York: Guilford Press. Cassady, L., Allen, B., Lyon, E., and McGeehan, D. (1987) The Child-focused Intervention Program. 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Journal of Marriage and the Family, Straus, M. A., Gelles, R. J., and Steinmetz, S. (1980) Behind Closed Doors: Violence in the American Family. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. Sudermann, M., and Jaffe, P. G. (1997) Children and youth who witness violence: new directions in interventions and prevention. In D. A. Wolfe, R. J. McMahon, and R. DeV. Peters (eds.), Child Abuse: New Direction in Prevention and Treatment across the Lifespan. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Sudermann, M., Jaffe, P. G., and Hastings, E. (1995) Prevention programs in secondary schools. In E. Peled, P. Jaffe, and J. Edleson (eds.), Ending the Cycle of Violence: Community Responses to Children of Battered Women. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Sudermann, M., Marshall, L., Miller, N., and Miller-Hewitt, S. (1995) "Children's questionnaire for groups for children who have witnessed violence." Unpublished document. London, ON: London Family Court Clinic. Sudermann, M., Marshall, L., and Loosley, S. (In press). Evaluation
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Have Witnessed Woman Abuse. In Tearmann Society for Battered Women (1988) Medical Services or Disservice? An Exploratory Study of Wife Assault Victims' in Health Care Delivery Settings. New Glasgow, NS. Terr, L. (1991) Childhood traumas: an outline and overview. American Journal of Psychiatry, 140: 10-20. Thornton, M., Bartoletto, L., and Van Dieten, M. (1996) Women's Group Facilitation Manual: Growing Together: Parenting Children Who Have Survived Violence in the Home. Ottawa, ON: John Howard Society of Ottawa-Carleton. Van Dalen, A., and Glasserman, J. (1997) My father, Frankenstein: a child's
view of battering parents. Journal of the American Academy of Child
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Psychologist, Walker, L. E., and Edwall, G. E. (1987) Domestic violence and determination of visitation and custody in divorce. In D. J. Sonkin (ed.), Domestic Violence on Trial: Psychological and Legal Dimensions of Family Violence. New York: Springer. Websdale, N. (1998) Rural Woman Battering and the Justice System: An Ethnography. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Wolfe, D. A. (1996) The Youth Relationships Model: A Group Approach with Adolescents for the Prevention of Woman Abuse and the Promotion of Healthy Relationships. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Wolfe, D. A., Jaffe, P., Wilson, S., and Zak, L. (1985) Children of battered women: the relation of child behaviour to family violence and maternal stress. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53: 657-665. Wolfe, D. A., Wekerle, C., Reitzel-Jaffe, D., Grasley, C., Pittman, A. L., and MacEachran, A. (1997) Interrupting the cycle of violence: empowering youth to promote healthy relationships. In D. A. Wolfe, R. J. McMahon, and R. DeV. Peters, (eds.), Child Abuse: New Directions in Prevention and Treatment across the Life Span. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Wolfe, D. A., Zak, L., Wilson, S., and Jaffe, P. (1986) Child witnesses to violence between parents: critical issues in behavioural and social adjustment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 14(1): 95-104. Wolfe, V. V. and Lehmann, P. J. (1992) "The Children's Impact of Traumatic Events Scale-Family Violence Version." Unpublished assessment instrument. London, ON: Children's Hospital of Western Ontario. Wright, R. J., Wright, R. O., and Isaac, N. E. (1997). Response to battered mothers in the pediatric emergency department: a call for an interdisciplinary approach to family violence. Pediatrics, 99(2): 186-192. Manuals Ganley, A. L., Schechter, S., and Carter, J. (1996) Domestic Violence: A National Curriculum for Children's Protective Services. San Francisco: Family Violence Prevention Fund. Loosley, S., Bentley, L., Rabenstein, S., and Sudermann, M. (1997) Group Treatment for Children Who Witness Woman Abuse. London, ON: Community Group Treatment Program. Peled, E., and Davis, D. (1995) Groupwork with Children of Battered Women. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Sudermann, M., Jaffe, P. G., and Schieck, E. (1996) A.S.A.P.: A School-based Anti-Violence Program. London, ON: London Family Court Clinic. Thornton, M., Bartoletto, L., and Van Dieten, M. (1996) Women's Group Facilitation Manual: Growing Together: Parenting Children Who Have Survived Violence in the Home. Ottawa, ON: John Howard Society of Ottawa-Carleton. Video Resources Break the Cycle (1991) Esprit Films, Ltd. Tel.: (905) 685_8336.
Kidstuff (1990) National Film Board of Canada. (Also available in French.) 6 minutes.
Make a Difference: How to Respond to Child Witnesses of Woman Abuse (1995) The London Co-ordinating Committee to End Woman Abuse, c/o Children's Aid Society of London and Middlesex. Tel.: (519) 455_9000.
Not Always Who They Seem (1984) 408 Dundas Street, Toronto, ON M5A 2A5: Kinetic Inc., Tel.: (416) 963_5979; Fax: (416) 925_0653. 54 minutes.
Seen But Not Heard (1993) Friday Street Productions and the B.C./Yukon Society of Transition Houses. Available through the National Film Board of Canada.
The Crown Prince (1989) National Film Board of Canada (Also available in French.) 37 minutes.
The Ticket Back (1992) National Film Board of Canada.
Tulip Doesn't Feel Safe (1993) Kinetic, Inc. Tel.: (416) 963_5979.
What About Us? (1993) The B.C./Yukon Society of Transition Houses. Tel.: (604) 669_6943.
Books for Children
A Family That Fights (1991) By S. C. Bernstein. Morton Grove, Il: Albert Whitman. Hear My Roar: A Story of Family Violence (1994) By Ty Hochban and Vladyana Krykorka. Toronto, ON: Annick Press, Ltd. I Wish the Hitting Would Stop: A Workbook for Children Living in Violent Homes (1987) By Susan Patterson and Decia Softing Freed. North Dakota: Crisis Centre of Fargo-Moorhead, Red Flag, Green Flag Resources. Never, No Matter What (1988) By M. Otto. Toronto, ON: Women Press. Something Is Wrong at My House (1984) By Diane Davis. Seattle: Parenting Press, Inc. Clearinghouses National Clearinghouse on Family Violence, Family Violence Prevention
Unit, Health Canada, Jeanne Mance Building, Tunney's Pasture, Address
Locator 1909D1, Ottawa, ON K1A 1B4, Canada, Tel.: (613) 957-2938 or Za-geh-do-win. Information about health, healing and family violence
for Aboriginal communities in Ontario. Za-geh-do-win Information Clearinghouse,
P.O. Box 40, Naughton, ON
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