7. Environment

The emerging focus on sustainability and the Kyoto Protocol to
the Framework Convention on Climate Change are part of the new challenges facing Canada's transportation sector.

Transportation generates by-products that have a significant impact on the environment and on human health. It is widely accepted that transportation activities contribute to climate change, depletion of the ozone layer, the spread of toxic substances, local and regional air pollution - including ground-level ozone (smog), acid rain and noise - depletion of oil and other natural resources, and damage to landscape and soil.

More and more, Canadians are insisting that planners take into account the transportation system's environmental impacts. As society evolves toward sustainable development, Canadians want the transportation system to perform its vital functions of moving commodities and providing people access to work and leisure in ways that do not harm the environment.

Major Events in 1997

Transport Canada's Sustainable Development Strategy

In December 1997, Transport Canada tabled its strategy for sustainable development as required by amendments to the Auditor General Act. Sustainable development finds ways "to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." The department's strategy integrates environmental thinking with safety and efficiency in developing policies and programs for the transportation sector.

Transport Canada's Sustainable Development Strategy has two components. The first focuses on promoting sustainable development in the transportation sector. The second concentrates on managing the department's own operations in ways that contribute to sustainable development.

For the transportation sector, the department focuses on meeting eight strategic environmental challenges:

For its own operations, the department has developed an environmental management system based on principles put forth by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in ISO 14000. The system's three key features are:

Climate Change Conference in Kyoto, Japan

As a signatory to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change concluded in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, Canada adopted the goal of stabilizing its greenhouse gas emissions at 1990 levels by the year 2000. A National Action Program has been in place since 1995, based on voluntary actions and partnerships. Although progress has been made toward this goal, Canada (like most other countries) will not meet its target. Canadian greenhouse gas emissions from all sectors are forecast to exceed 1990 levels by eight per cent in 2000 and by 36 per cent in 2020 unless further actions are taken. Figure 7-1 provides a summary of Canada's greenhouse gas emissions since 1990.

In December 1997, the countries who signed the 1992 Framework Convention met in Kyoto, Japan to negotiate stronger emission reduction commitments for the post-2000 period. The Kyoto Protocol to the Framework Convention was concluded on December 10, 1997. Under this protocol, to be legally binding when it comes into force, industrialized countries undertake to reduce their collective emissions of greenhouse gases by 5.2 per cent from specified base years over a five year commitment period beginning in 2008. For the three principle greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane), the base year is 1990. For three newer gases (hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulphur hexafluoride), the base year is either 1990 or 1995. The Protocol defines different targets for industrialized countries over this period. Canada's target is to reduce its total greenhouse gas emissions by six per cent from 1990 levels.

The protocol includes several flexibility mechanisms in meeting this target. The right of parties to trade emission reduction credits to meet their commitments is included, on the condition that such trading is supplemental to domestic actions. A Clean Development Mechanism will operate under the authority of the Conference of Parties to the Framework Convention, to enable the financing of, and the distribution of credit for, emissions-reduction projects in developing countries. The protocol permits countries national flexibility on the policies and measures they adopt to meet their targets.

The protocol requires all Parties, including industrialized and developing countries, to present national reports on emissions data and on programs to address climate change issues. The question of developing country commitments in the post-2000 period, and the details of an emissions trading regime, will be among the issues to be addressed at the next Conference of Parties to the Framework Convention in Buenos Aires in November, 1998.

The protocol will be open for signing from March 1998 to March 1999. Countries will then have the additional step of deciding to ratify the agreement. Entry into force of the protocol will depend upon ratification by 55 countries representing at least 55 per cent of developed countries' emissions.

Federal Smog Management Plan

Environment Canada, Natural Resources Canada and Transport Canada worked together in 1997 to produce the second phase of the federal government's smog management plan, released in November. Phase Two is a follow-up to Phase One, adopted in 1990, which included stricter vehicle emission standards for 1995 and 1998 model years and stricter standards for diesel and gasoline fuels.

The objectives of the second phase are to continue pursuing Canada's one-hour ambient air quality objective for ground-level ozone of 82 parts per billion by 2005; adopt a multi-pollutant approach; and meet Canada's international commitments, including those in the Canada-US Air Quality Agreement. The plan's objectives also include implementing strong national smog-reduction programs, helping provincial governments resolve regional smog problems, and tracking results against the program's objectives.

The core elements of the
Phase Two plan continue federally led national initiatives to reduce smog. Among the initiatives related to transportation is work by Transport Canada, other federal departments and the transportation industry to reduce emissions from aircraft and marine vessels in line with standards established within the International Civil Aviation Organization and the International Maritime Organization. Also, there are initiatives within the transportation sector related to energy efficiency, renewable and alternative energy, new technologies and voluntary actions.

Task Force on Sustainable Transportation

In 1996, the National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy established a program to provide all Canadians with advice on sustainable transportation, including a Task Force on Sustainable Transportation to direct research and organize multi-stakeholder consultations.

The Round Table recommends implementing education and awareness programs for students, professional associations and the general public to highlight the consequences of inaction, and to provide better information about sustainable transportation options. The Round Table further recommends better government co-ordination to build consensus on a national strategy for sustainable transportation and to encourage municipal governments to work together toward achieving this goal.

In addition, the Round Table highlights the need for more analysis and debate on the use of economic instruments to reduce the environmental impacts of transportation, notably options derived from full-cost accounting and user-pay principles. Finally, the Round Table encourages provincial authorities to consider land-use legislation and policies that are consistent with the Transportation Association of Canada's New Vision for Urban Transportation.

In November 1997, the Task Force released its first report, State of the Debate: The Road to Sustainable Transportation in Canada. The report concludes that transportation is on an unsustainable path because of its contributions to greenhouse gas production and ground-level pollutants, including particulates and the precursors to smog. Unless current trends are stopped, impacts on the environment from transportation will increase.

UN Commission on Sustainable Development

Canada signalled its commitment to sustainable transportation by including a section called "The Challenge of Sustainable Transportation" in its 1996 report to the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. The preparation of a monographNote 1 on the topic reinforced this commitment in April 1997.

The monograph reviewed current transportation trends toward sustainability in Canada and elsewhere; outlined how responsibilities for transportation are shared within jurisdictions in Canada; and noted some of Canada's recent actions to promote sustainability at home and around the world. Its main goal - toward which progress was made - was to support the preparation and inclusion of a new annex to Agenda 21 (the outcome of the Rio conference in 1992) on sustainable transportation.

Transportation and Energy

Sales of Petroleum Products for Transport Purposes

Because emissions from transportation correlate closely with energy use, any description of the impact of transportation on air quality must include an analysis of petroleum fuel consumption. The transportation sector accounts for close to 60 per cent of all petroleum use in Canada, by far the greatest consumer in the Canadian economy.

Sales of petroleum products increased overall by 7.3 per cent between 1979 and 1996, but increased sales of only two products account for this growth. Diesel fuel sales more than doubled, with growth continuing during 1996, while aviation fuel sales increased by just over 20 per cent, mostly between 1994 and 1996.

Figure 7-2 illustrates the sales of petroleum products to the transportation sector from 1979 to 1996.

Sales of gasoline, used mainly for private automobiles, remained relatively constant from 1979 to 1996, with slight growth evident during the 1990s that continued in 1996. From 1979 to 1996, private automobile use increased by an estimated 39 per cent, which suggests an improvement in energy efficiency for these types of vehicles. During the same period, however, sales of marine and rail fuels declined.

If considered on a per-capita basis, the amount of gasoline used tended to fall slightly from 1979 to 1996, as have the amounts of rail and marine fuel. Aircraft fuel used per person has remained at approximately 1979 levels, although it is currently showing an increasing trend. Diesel fuel use per capita has increased more than 50 per cent since 1979. Figure 7-3 shows transportation fuel use per capita from 1979 to 1996.

Medium-duty and heavy-duty truck activities are on the rise, thus the use of diesel fuel for road transportation. Population growth and an increase in the amount of economic activity in Canada are two reasons for these gains, but another may be the growth in the practice of "just-in-time delivery," which replaces conventional warehousing with frequent deliveries scheduled according to production processes. Another important factor is greater reliance on distant sources for materials, components and finished goods.

Figure 7-4 shows how each transportation mode contributes to the total use of petroleum products for the movement of goods and people. Motor gasoline and aviation fuel, which are dominant in moving people, accounted for approximately 70 per cent of the fuel used for transportation in 1996, while road diesel, marine and rail fuel accounted for the rest.

Fuel Efficiency

Canada has been working for many years to promote energy conservation in the transportation sector. As a result, the performance of most classes of vehicles, especially passenger vehicles, has improved over the last two decades.

Figure 7-5 shows trends toward fuel efficiency for all modes of transportation. It is important to note that the data used to create the figure was in tonne-kilometres, rather than vehicle- or vessel-kilometres. This method of representing the information means that technical improvements in fuel efficiency for marine and rail, in particular, may be obscured by changes in commodity mix, loading or the size of vehicle used.

The exception to this fuel efficiency improvement is the growing use of vans, light trucks and sport-utility vehicles for passenger vehicles, which is offsetting gains in efficiency achieved for passenger automobiles. Table 7-1 compares the fuel efficiency of cars and light trucks with federal government targets from 1978 to 1997.

Other Efforts

For fuel efficiency, initial design is the most significant factor in good vehicle performance, but proper maintenance is also important. In 1997, Ontario's provincial government proposed a mandatory program of vehicle maintenance and inspection, following British Columbia's lead in 1992. These programs are designed primarily to reduce ground-level ozone, but they are also likely to contribute to improved fuel efficiency.

Ontario's Drive Clean Program will begin in the summer of 1998, requiring all heavy-duty trucks and buses in Ontario to complete an emissions test as part of current annual safety testing. In the late summer or fall, the program will be extended to all cars and light trucks registered or resold within the Greater Toronto Area and the Hamilton-Wentworth region. An emissions test will be necessary every two years thereafter at registration renewal for cars and light trucks aged four to 19 years, and any time at resale for all model years. Antique cars, commercial farm vehicles and motorcycles are not included in the program.

The BC inspection program, call "Air Care", has been law since 1992. In October 1997, it was announced that the program would be extended from the current inspection of automobiles and light trucks to cover heavy-duty truck and bus emissions by September 1998.

In addition, increasing vehicle occupancy can also help in reducing energy consumption by improving the efficiency of passenger transportation. Several municipalities have implemented "high-occupancy" lanes for vehicles carrying two or more people. Although this has generally been undertaken to reduce congestion during peak travel times rather than to reduce fuel use, it has most probably also had the latter effect.

Impact of transportation on the environment

From a local as well as a global perspective, the biggest environmental challenges for transportation are related to air emissions from transport activities. Indirectly, transportation can also be associated with environmental impacts resulting from vehicle and fuel production, construction and operation of transport infrastructure.

Natural Resources Canada's publication Canada's Energy Outlook 1996-2020, indicates that in 1995, fuel consumption in the transport sector directly contributed about 27 per cent of the total greenhouse gases produced by human activity in Canada.

Air Emissions

The burning of petroleum fuels in internal combustion engines produces a variety of emissions, including carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), volatile organic compounds (VOC), nitrogen oxides (NOX), sulphur oxides (SOX), and particulates (from diesel).

Table 7-2 details the effects these emissions have on human health, the environment, or both.

In addition, transportation emits chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) through leakage from automobile air conditioners. CFCs are contributors, along with carbon dioxide, methane and nitrogen oxides, to the formation of greenhouse gases linked to climate change. CFCs are also a major contributor to high-altitude ozone depletion, a recognized cause of sunburn and, over time, a likely contributor to skin cancer. Nitrous and sulphur dioxides also contribute to acid rain.

Particulates from transportation are also a problem. Data from the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) indicates that particulates from transportation sources increased by nearly 45 per cent between 1980 and 1994, while emissions of particulates from other sources, as well as emissions of other substances from transportation, declined. Particulates are more likely to be produced by diesel than by gasoline engines, thus the increase in emissions of particulates is consistent with the increase in diesel fuel use illustrated in Figures 7-2 and 7-3. It is not the total amount of emissions that determines the severity of health and environmental effects, rather it is the local and regional atmospheric concentrations of the substances in question.

Ground-level ozone is the only transportation-related pollutant with concentrations above what Environment Canada considers to be a desirable level. In many parts of Canada, including southern Ontario, much of the ground-level ozone, as well as the ingredients that make it, are blown in from the US, particularly from industrial and other sources in the Ohio Valley.

Breathing fine particulates is linked to health problems, including asthma and lung cancer. The smallest particulates, those less than 2.5 microns, are especially harmful to health, and they are also most likely to be found in vehicle exhaust. The federal government will examine the need for national air quality standards for particulates and ground-level ozone under the second phase of the Federal Smog Management Plan.

Table 7-3 reports the concentrations of pollutants at monitoring sites across Canada, for the most part in major urban areas. Concentrations are more significant measures of particulates than total emissions because concentrations determine the severity of health and environmental effects.

Urbanization and Suburbanization

According to Canada's 1996 Census, the trend toward concentration of the population into major metropolitan areas is continuing. The four largest metro areas - Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver and Ottawa-Hull - contained 35 per cent of Canada's population in 1991, and contributed to 50 per cent of the growth in Canada's population between 1991 and 1996.

Low-density suburban sprawl is also on the increase in most of Canada's larger cities. The results are low population densities, which make transit systems less viable, and an increased need for private automobiles. This increase in travel usually translates into greater production of air pollution, particularly by automobiles and light trucks.

Other Environmental Impacts

Although exhaust emissions from transportation have significant impacts on the environment and human health, contamination of water and land cannot be ignored. Changes in the land surface resulting from transportation infrastructure also affect the environment and ecosystem integrity. For example, infrastructure can alter drainage patterns, and roads can become barriers to natural migration.

In addition, the environmental impacts of manufacturing vehicles, fuel and infrastructure come into play, as do the disposal impacts of old and unusable vehicles and parts. Noise is also an issue for people living near airports, major highways, railroad tracks and other transportation facilities.

Looking ahead

Emerging awareness about the need for sustainability is presenting new challenges for Canada's transportation sector. One of the most important, identified in Transport Canada's Sustainable Development Strategy, is the need for performance indicators to measure progress toward sustainability on all levels: environmental, economic and social.

Canada has made much progress on smog management, but many issues remain to be addressed. Ground-level ozone and small-diameter particulates remain a concern. Greenhouse gas emissions are increasing. To reach Canada's Kyoto target and ensure progress toward sustainability, the transportation sector must reduce its emissions. Some reductions will come from technological improvements and some from changes in how Canadians move themselves and their freight.

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