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Home 
Research Themes
In Focus
Indigenous KnowledgeFebruary 2006
An Introduction to Indigenous Knowledge
Photo--Courtesy of Racelle Kooy
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1. Indigenous Knowledge and Policy Development Contemporary interest in the Indigenous Knowledge systems of the world has brought new opportunities to explore concepts, contexts and ethical use of such knowledge in national and international policy research. Whether policy makers are working within Indigenous or non-Indigenous organizations, challenges are similar in engaging in dialogue regarding Indigenous Knowledge systems. Policy makers who find themselves in this difficult role, understand there are no easy answers. Indigenous Knowledge systems exist in a manner unique to the Indigenous Peoples who hold the knowledge and no one comprehensive body or system of Indigenous Knowledge exists. Acknowledging the diverse existence of Indigenous Knowledge is an important research cornerstone, but it should not be seen as an impediment to developing policy as Indigenous Knowledge systems throughout the world do have some underlying similarities common within Indigenous thought. 2. Indigenous Issues in Canada In recent years, Aboriginal issues have come to the attention of the Canadian public. In a 2004 report to the United Nations High Commission on Human Rights, Special Rapporteur Rodolfo Stavenhagen identifies several grim issues facing Aboriginal Peoples of Canada as well as Canada’s commitment to ensuring the country’s prosperity is shared by Aboriginal Peoples. Economic, social and human indicators of well-being, quality of life and development are consistently lower among Aboriginal people than other Canadians. Poverty, infant mortality, unemployment, morbidity, suicide, criminal detention, children on welfare, women victims of abuse, child prostitution, are all much higher among Aboriginal people than in any other sector of Canadian society, whereas educational attainment, health standards, housing conditions, family income, access to economic opportunity and to social services are generally lower. Canada has taken up the challenge to close this gap (Stavenhagen, 2004, p.2). Aboriginal Peoples are well aware of these unacceptable socio-economic conditions. It is a lifestyle endured for many generations. The impacts of colonization have had devastating results on Aboriginal Peoples and, for many, the damaged sense of identity and loss of cultural and linguistic traditions are perhaps among the most deleterious. Recovering a place of honour for Indigenous Knowledge is an important step in building a healthy foundation for future generations of Aboriginal Peoples. 3. Indigenous Knowledge and Definitions Comprehensive definitions of Indigenous Knowledge do not exist. Efforts to create them inevitably fail to capture the complexities, subtleties and variable nature of particular Indigenous Knowledge and knowledge systems across cultures, language groups and specific subject matter. Problems also arise when attempting to define Indigenous Knowledge within Eurocentric frameworks. Mr. Capotorti, Special Rapporteur for the United Nations, provided insight in this regard in a 1991 publication entitled Study on the Rights of Persons Belonging to Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities. Precise universal definition, while of philosophical interest, would be nearly impossible to attain in the current state of global realities, and would in any event not contribute perceptibly to the practical aspects of defending groups from abuse (Battiste & Henderson, 2000, p.35). Battiste and Henderson identify some of the problems with trying to define Indigenous Knowledge. They explain, Indigenous Peoples do not carry similar concepts of ‘culture’ in keeping with Eurocentric concepts of ‘culture’; Indigenous Knowledge is not a uniform concept among all Indigenous Peoples, it is diverse and exists in varying layers and often those who possess it cannot categorize it into Eurocentric categories because the knowledge does not exist in this manner; and Indigenous Knowledge held by individuals, clans, bands or communities cannot easily be separated from the user as it is part of their existence and normal usage (Battiste & Henderson, 2000, p.36). 4. Indigenous Knowledge in Literature The term Indigenous Knowledge is used broadly, with a variety of implicit and explicit definitions, depending upon the forum within which it is being discussed. Literature generated on the general topic provides an assortment of perspectives on what Indigenous Knowledge is and how it exists. In examining published commentary on Indigenous Knowledge, it is important to consider
While there are varying streams of information available on Indigenous Knowledge, information generated by non-Indigenous people on the subject of Indigenous Knowledge often seeks specific definitions, attempts direct comparisons with Western-style knowledge paradigms and is often focussed on harnessing Indigenous Knowledge for commercial purposes. On the other hand, information on Indigenous Knowledge generated by Indigenous Peoples generally avoids specific definitions, seldom attempts direct comparisons with Western-style knowledge paradigms and tends to be provided as an educational tool for learning how to respect Indigenous Knowledge and interface with Indigenous Knowledge holders for the purpose of sustaining a healthy life on earth. Indigenous writers such as Marie Battiste, James (Sa’ke’j) Youngblood Henderson, Willie Ermine, Linda Tuhiwai Smith, Graham Smith, Leroy Little Bear, Bonnie and Eduardo Duran and others have written about concepts of Indigenous Knowledge, impacts of colonization, rebuilding Indigenous Nations, and research issues which are helpful in understanding concepts and contexts of Indigenous Knowledge. Authors such as these have studied particular Indigenous Knowledge systems and address obstacles faced by Indigenous Peoples in retaining and maintaining their knowledge systems. 5. Aboriginal Epistemology Aboriginal epistemology (philosophy of Aboriginal knowledge) requires an acceptance that knowledge exists in many forms, including the tangible and intangible. Those people who seek knowledge on the physical plane objectively find their answers through exploration of the outer space, solely on the corporeal level. Those who seek to understand the reality of existence and harmony with the environment by turning inward have a different incorporeal knowledge paradigm that might be termed ‘Aboriginal epistemology’...The inner space is that universe of being within each person that is synonymous with the soul, the spirit, the self, or the being” (Ermine, 1995, p.103). Indigenous Peoples do not seek understanding, nor convey cultural teachings within the group through objective processes. Rather, knowledge is provided so that the learner must integrate the intangible elements of self within the comprehension process. One’s personal set of kinship, experiences, relationships, knowledge of community practices, spirituality and history are all part of Aboriginal epistemology. Indigenous Knowledge comprises a complex system of reciprocity that must be understood by the learner in order to maintain equilibrium within the world. Personal actions impact upon environment, and so there is a tremendous responsibility carried by the individual, and the community, that must be considered carefully before carrying out a particular action. This responsibility is not only to the physical world or others in the community, but it is also a responsibility to the spiritual world. Aboriginal philosophy of the Plains Indians holds that all things are animate, have spirit, are in constant motion, that interrelationships between entities are of paramount importance and that referential space is more important than time. This is the philosophy that provides the foundation for the values and customs such as the acceptance of wholeness or totality, strength, independence and respect, noninterference for others’ wholeness, totality and knowledge, sharing, humour, honesty and kindness. These values function to maintain the relationships that hold creation together (Little Bear, 2000, p.77-80). Indigenous Knowledge differs from region to region and is grounded in the particular environment and culture from which it has emerged contributing to Indigenous Peoples’ history and epistemology. From the beginning, the forces of the ecologies in which we live have taught Indigenous peoples a proper kinship order and have taught us how to have nourishing relationships with our ecosystems. The ecologies in which we live are more to us than settings or places; they are more than homelands or promised homelands. These ecologies do not surround Indigenous peoples; we are an integral part of them and we inherently belong to them. The ecologies are alive with the enduring processes of creation itself. As Indigenous peoples, we invest the ecologies with deep respect, and from them we unfold our structure of Indigenous life and thought (Battiste & Henderson, 2000, p.9). Defining Indigenous Knowledge using Eurocentric scientific paradigms is not possible. The oral nature, intangible aspects and holistic views of Indigenous Knowledge do not fit into foreign paradigms. That is, Eurocentric scientific paradigms search for tangible evidence, definitions and non-contradictory qualities. Without these qualities, Eurocentric scientific paradigms cannot accept or process other kinds of information. Understanding Indigenous Knowledge requires the use of Indigenous paradigms that respect the intangible, intuitive and shifting nature of Indigenous Knowledge systems. 6. Terminology Used for Indigenous Knowledge In contemporary times, even given the challenges of labeling and defining Indigenous Knowledge, a number of terms have become commonly used by both Indigenous Peoples, and non-Indigenous people, when referring to forms of Indigenous Knowledge. While this list is not exhaustive, it is helpful to understanding the term Indigenous Knowledge is not used in a standard manner. Utilization of the term ‘Indigenous Knowledge’ to describe a pan-Indigenous Knowledge set or epistemology is somewhat comparable to using the term ‘Indigenous’ to describe a portion of humanity. While these terms have some functionality, they convey abstract messages which are difficult to further define.
7. Working Definitions of Indigenous Knowledge Many organizations and researchers have made an effort to conceptualize Indigenous Knowledge within specific contexts and for specific purposes. As concepts of Indigenous Knowledge are explored, a variety of working definitions have been generated. Dr. Erica-Irene Daes, Chairperson-Rapporteur of the UN Working Group on Indigenous Populations, explained in a 1994 report on the protection of the heritage of Indigenous Peoples, that Indigenous Knowledge is “a complete knowledge system with its own concepts of epistemology, philosophy, and scientific and logical validity”. She says also that any Indigenous Knowledge system “can only be fully learned or understood by means of the pedagogy traditionally employed by these peoples themselves, including apprenticeship, ceremonies and practice”. In addition, she places emphasis on the fact that the “central and indispensable classroom” of Indigenous Knowledge systems is found in the land and ecology. Dr. Daes explains that one does not learn about Indigenous perspectives from literature, but rather, one must employ a different method of research which involves direct learning from Indigenous Elders of each language group, taking responsibility for the knowledge that is learned and employing it in ones daily life in order to renew the knowledge (Battiste & Henderson, 2000, p.41). Battiste and Henderson (2000) provide insights on the Traditional Ecological Knowledge of Indigenous Peoples of North America. They say that the knowledge ...is scientific, in the sense that it is empirical, experimental, and systematic. It differs in two important respects from Western science, however: traditional ecological knowledge is highly localized and it is social. Its focus is the web of relationships between humans, animals, plants, natural forces, spirits, and land forms in a particular locality, as opposed to the discovery of universal “laws”. It is the original knowledge of Indigenous peoples. Indigenous peoples have accumulated extraordinarily complex models of species interactions over centuries within very small geographical areas, and they are reluctant to generalize beyond their direct fields of experience. Western scientists, by contract, concentrate on speculating about and then testing global generalizations, with the result that they know relatively little about the complexities of specific local ecosystems. As a consequence of these different levels of analysis, the Indigenous people who have traditionally lived within particular ecosystems can make better predictions about the consequences of any physical changes or stresses that they have previously experienced than scientists who base their forecasts on generalized models and data or indicators from relatively short-term field observations (Battiste & Henderson, 2000, p.43). The United Nations Secretariat on the Convention on Biological Diversity, Traditional knowledge refers to the knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities around the world. Developed from experience gained over the centuries and adapted to the local culture and environment, traditional knowledge is transmitted orally from generation to generation. It tends to be collectively owned and takes the form of stories, songs, folklore, proverbs, cultural values, beliefs, rituals, community laws, local language, and agricultural practices, including the development of plant species and animal breeds. Traditional knowledge is mainly of a practical nature, particularly in such fields as agriculture, fisheries, health, horticulture, and forestry. (UN CBD Secretariat, n.d.). The World Intellectual Property Organization created a working definition of traditional knowledge for exploratory work done in 1998-1999. For that purpose they said, ‘traditional knowledge’...refer[s] to tradition-based literacy, artistic or scientific works; performances; inventions; scientific discoveries; designs; marks, names and symbols; undisclosed information; and all other tradition-based innovations and creations resulting from intellectual activity in the industrial, scientific, literary or artistic fields. “Tradition-based” refers to knowledge systems, creations, innovations and cultural expressions which: have generally been transmitted from generation to generation; are generally regarded as pertaining to a particular people or its territory; and, are constantly evolving in response to a changing environment. Categories of traditional knowledge could include: agricultural knowledge; scientific knowledge; technical knowledge; ecological knowledge; medicinal knowledge, including related medicines and remedies; biodiversity-related knowledge; “traditional cultural expressions” (“expressions of folklore”) in the form of music, dance, song, handicrafts, designs, stories and artwork; elements of languages, such as names, geographical indications and symbols; and, movable cultural properties. Excluded from this description of Traditional Knowledge would be items not resulting from intellectual activity in the industrial, scientific, literary or artistic fields, such as human remains, languages in general, and other similar elements of “heritage” in the broad sense” (WIPO, n.d.). Daniel Gervais, Oslers Professor of Technology Law, Faculty of Law (Common Law), University of Ottawa; Former Head of Section, World Intellectual Property Organization, Geneva; and Legal Officer, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade/World Trade Organization, Geneva has provided insights into defining and accessing Indigenous Knowledge within the trade sector. He summarizes some of the basic characteristics of traditional knowledge in that it
8. Ethical Use of Indigenous Knowledge Indigenous Nations and Indigenous writers over the past several decades have focussed on asserting the intrinsic value of Indigenous Knowledge, protecting the knowledge and knowledge holders from exploitation, and developing appropriate methodologies to promote the perpetuation of Indigenous Knowledge for subsequent generations of Indigenous Peoples. There must also be an equal effort by policy developers to employ collaborative methodologies and ethical frameworks that will systemically facilitate and advance the discourse on Indigenous Knowledge. Contemporary communication technology and increased numbers of researchers have generated a significant amount of literature readily available to the public. Yet, there are few controls to assist in screening research and commentary on Indigenous Knowledge. As we move into the next millennium, we should not be tolerant of the neocolonialism that runs unchecked through our knowledge-generating systems. We must ensure that journals, media, and other avenues for the dissemination of thought have “gatekeepers” who understand the effects of colonialism and are committed to fighting any perceived act of hegemony over our communities” (Duran and Duran, 2000, p.88). Some Indigenous Nations put forward opportunities to share facets of their traditional knowledge with the expectation that traditional protocols would be observed by the receiver in order to maintain the same respectful state in which the knowledge exists. If governing nation-states, representatives, researchers or expert advisors lack the ability to learn and demonstrate traditional protocols, there is little chance that the Indigenous Knowledge shared will be utilized in an appropriate manner. Accomplishing collaborative methodologies and ethical frameworks could generate a process within specific Indigenous Nations for disseminating information and stimulating discussion on current activity concerning Indigenous Knowledge research. It would also provide broader endorsement (or rejection) by specific nations on proposed applications of Indigenous Knowledge. Without a collaborative process, discussions on Indigenous Knowledge will always remain outside of the control of Indigenous Nations, which most would agree, is undesirable and unethical. Dr. Kelly Bannister, University of Victoria, examined a number of legal and ethical issues with respect to ownership and control of Indigenous Knowledge, including those arising from the Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans adopted in 1998 by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC), the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR). Dr. Bannister raises questions regarding the lack of explicit policy in research ethics on ownership and control of Indigenous Knowledge, given that research involving Indigenous Knowledge can be a means of establishing proprietary rights in the knowledge. She examines internal processes of technology transfer used by the universities studied, and highlights the copyright and patent policies employed by each as well as the legal and ethical dilemmas this could present for universities and researchers with respect to the study of Indigenous Knowledge. (Bannister, 2003). In the Spring of 2004, the Interagency Advisory Panel on Research Ethics, mandated by NSERC, SSHRC and CIHR, partnered with the Indigenous Peoples’ Health Research Centre (IPHRC) to provide a review of key issues regarding ethical research involving Aboriginal Peoples in keeping with Section 6 of the Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans. The research team, comprised of both Indigenous and non-Indigenous people, produced a report in July 2004 entitled The Ethics of Research Involving Aboriginal Peoples in which they reviewed issues raised in literature since the mid 1990's. The recommendations contained in the report can help to establish a new paradigm for research work involving Aboriginal Peoples. There is a need for policy developers to employ respectful and inclusive processes of bringing people together to work through all stages of policy development. Indigenous Peoples often do not have the capacity to match well-financed research and development units of other organizations creating an exclusionary environment that will inevitably result in rejection of policy that they have not been a part of creating. 9. Knowledge Exchange Knowledge exchange or knowledge transfer within Indigenous communities is generally governed by unwritten protocols and processes accepted and understood by those involved. These include issues of:
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