Document(s) 5 of 9

Part 4

LEARNING FROM EXPERIENCE

Participatory plant breeding

Part of the solution

The preceding chapter contains six stories -- a cross-section of a decade of research in countries around the world, some of which is still ongoing. These stories show us farmers, even whole communities, becoming empowered, gaining a small measure of control over their natural resources. They show us researchers and scientists discovering the value of extending their work outside of the laboratory and research station to benefit from the knowledge and experience of the men and women who are closest to the land. Of course, any good story contains a message -- a lesson -- and these stories are no exception. What lessons can be learned from examining 10 years of research? And how can those lessons be used to enhance decision-making about future directions for agricultural and environmental policy and research?

The issues are clear -- genetic erosion is taking place at an alarming rate. We have seen the example of China, where the total national maize germplasm collection has around 16 000 entries, but 53% of the country's maize-growing area is planted to just 5 dominant hybrid varieties. This pattern is repeated in most of the world's food-producing areas, and brings an entirely new meaning to the expression "doing more with less."

The other side of the coin: the world's poor depend on biological products for as much as 90% of their needs -- food, fuel, medicine, shelter, transportation. Approximately 1.4 billion people, mostly poor farmers, have traditionally used and improved their own crop seeds, leading to the development of many landraces for each crop. About 75% of the world's population relies on traditional medicines for primary health care. These biological resources, including the skills and knowledge that have contributed to this diversity, are increasingly threatened by changes in social, economic, and political structures, changes in natural environments, and increasing pressure on the resources themselves.

The threat to biodiversity is a complex and broad-ranging issue that ultimately affects all of us -- South and North -- because it has the potential to disrupt our food supply. If PPB is at least a part of the solution, then it is important to understand what has been accomplished by this relatively new research approach, and how those results might be applied most effectively on the wider stage.

Recall that the approach to agrobiodiversity research outlined in Part 2 of this book is based on three widely accepted objectives: enhancing knowledge about agrobiodiversity, designing and testing practices and measures that add value to agrobiodiversity, and creating supportive policy and legislative alternatives. The search for lessons begins here, but underlying these objectives we also need to look for more general outcomes that might point the way to future research and policy development (see Table 4). For example:

• research, advocacy, and policy methodology development and innovation,
• individual and organizational research capacity building,
• new or stronger partnerships created among stakeholders or across sectors, and
• clear research and policy responsiveness to user needs.

Finally it is important to determine if there have been any direct or indirect spin-offs from the research. Has the research been adopted and adapted successfully elsewhere? Has there been a "multiplier effect"? Has the research led to new approaches, new thinking? In short, have the lessons been not just learned, but also applied? Have we learned from our experiences?

Agrobiodiversity

Crucial to document and integral to people's lives

In the effort to enhance existing knowledge about agrobiodiversity, researchers have dedicated much time and effort to documenting and describing existing crops and cropping systems, as well as local or indigenous knowledge about these. Their findings suggest that in many places the maintenance of agrobiodiversity is integral to people's cultural identities, and is usually a response to environmental, ecological, and economic uncertainty and fragility. Sometimes it is simply a way of making the best use of niche conditions.

Diversity and farmers' knowledge about the dynamics of that diversity is alive and well in many places, although as we have seen there is mounting evidence that traditional cropping systems and crops are under increasing pressure. These cropping systems include grains, root crops, legumes, spices, forages, and so called "uncultivated" or "wild" foods.

There are numerous examples of research tools "traveling" from one site to another -- from researcher to researcher, farmer to farmer.

The pressure on these systems comes in part from market forces, but a number of other factors come into play. Science threatens traditional crops and cropping systems through the introduction of a limited number of hybrid varieties and the subsequent replacement of more diverse mixes of traditional varieties. Pressure also comes from human activities, such as migration, "modernization," and,in some areas, warfare. Natural disasters such as hurricanes, floods, and earthquakes are an ever-present and unpredictable factor. Resource tenure also has emerged as a key factor in relation to the dynamics of diversity, and the space farmers have to maintain or increase varieties. More detailed research is needed to gain a better understanding of these factors and to identify possible entry points for action.

The dynamics and trends of agrobiodiversity are now much better documented and analyzed. Although the depth and quality of the results vary, several innovative tools have been developed that enable detailed analysis of trends at various levels -- crop, field, and farming systems. Significantly, there are numerous examples of these tools "traveling" from one site to another -- from researcher to researcher, farmer to farmer.

A good deal of valuable knowledge has been gained about the interrelations between the human factors and biophysical factors at various levels. The human factors include knowledge, skills, needs, and interests expressed through gender, age, class, and ethnicity. Documenting how they affect outcomes in combination with the biophysical factors at crop, cropping system, and landscape levels offers important insights into how and why communities conserve biodiversity.

One of the earliest biodiversity projects supported by IDRC was a study begun in 1992 that examined the factors maintaining sorghum landrace diversity in Ethiopia, which is thought to be the original home of this important small grain. This project has since been expanded and is ongoing. It has documented -- through observations, surveys, and interviews -- the vast taxonomical knowledge of Ethiopian farmers and confirmed their role in the maintenance of sorghum landrace diversity in the north Shewa and south Welo regions, as a means to reduce the risk of homogenization.

In addition, the study documented farmers' knowledge about storage conditions and duration of sorghum landraces, and the action needed to reduce losses caused by pests. The research focused on two areas: the dynamics and trends of crop diversity; and farmers' selection criteria at the field, community, and agroecosystem levels, from a gender perspective. It also examined the many variables that influence the use and management of diversity.

Others have studied complex and highly diverse cropping systems such as home gardens and slash-and-burn farming systems in Central and South America, as well as indigenous vegetable gardens in East and Southern Africa. A few have studied integrated crop-and-animal systems, such as the diverse fish­rice systems in the Mekong Delta region in Viet Nam.

Women all over the world play key roles in the management of agrobiodiversity. Recognition of these roles, however, remains weak in many places. There is also a need for more systematic and rigorous study of the diverse roles of women and men, and of the gender-differentiated impacts of changes in diversity. Meaningful research in this area requires going beyond simply breaking down data by the sex of participants. For example, age, ethnicity, economic status, and level of education are all significant factors that need to be considered.

There now exist a wide array of innovative research methods. One of these is the small grants mechanism that provides support for a wide variety of individual projects and methodologies under the "umbrella" of a common research theme. Another method is the multicountry research program. This provides a common framework for a shared research approach and methodology and for networking functions.

Successful spin-offs

Adding value to the conservation and use of agrobiodiversity

In most PPB-focused research, adding economic, social, or cultural value has been a core element of the process from the beginning; in others, it is initiated only following an extensive period of documentation and description. Much depends on the project design and approach, but in either case the results have been impressive.

Research tools and methodologies that "travel" from one region, or country, to another represent another way to add value to the original research investment. Therefore, achieving direct or indirect spin-offs to maximize the impact of research results is a goal of many of the projects.

As we have seen, the successful CIAL methodology developed by CIAT in Colombia has spread throughout much of Latin America. Approximately 250 farmer groups are carrying out experiments to increase crop diversity, improve productivity, and conserve soil and water. Most recently, elements of the CIAL approach have also made the move to China and to Cuba. Similarly, the maize project in southwestern China included elements of a maize-improvement project supported by IDRC and the CGIAR in Mexico. More examples: in Nepal, farmers in villages neighboring the research site picked up elements of the research and started their own experiments. And following successful work in Morocco, Syria, and Tunisia, ICARDA is building on experience gained and lessons learned in the barley-improvement project in North Africa and the Middle East in other countries in the region and beyond.

Some of the research has gained international recognition. For example, the Community Biodiversity Development and Conservation (CBDC) program was recommended by the FAO in its 1998 report on the State of the World's Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as a model for in situ conservation approaches. The CBDC is an interregional initiative developed by several NGOs and government agencies in Africa, Asia, Latin America, the Netherlands, Norway, and Canada.

In 1996 IDRC helped to organize two international workshops, one in India and another in the Netherlands, which proved to be catalysts in developing new and innovative collaborative efforts in the field of crop biodiversity. At the India workshop, plant breeders, scientists, and policy activists assessed thinking and practice in South Asia about agricultural biodiversity. They quickly recognized that they shared a number of ideas and interests, and explored convergence among perspectives as well as avenues for future collaboration.

One concrete outcome of the India workshop was the creation of the Using Agricultural Diversity small grants program in 1997. These awards help grassroots organizations and scientists working with farmers in South Asia to undertake applied research on the use of agricultural diversity -- including wild herbs, crops, and livestock -- to meet the needs of farm households and to protect the environment. The awards also encourage research collaboration, exchanges, and dissemination of information among the formal and informal sectors on practical means to enhance the sustainable use of agricultural diversity.

The workshop in the Netherlands brought together a dynamic group of like-minded researchers and staff from the CGIAR system, the FAO, European government agencies, a number of NARS, and donor agencies to explore common issues, interests, and methodologies. The participants took stock of PPB efforts deployed by plant breeders, conservationists, and social scientists, and developed concepts for cooperation to stimulate further research and practice in decentralized PPB.

More added value: this workshop also planted the seed for what is now the PRGA. The PRGA was first constituted unofficially in 1996 and subsequently formalized as a CGIAR program the following year.

There is definitely a need for a more systematic approach to a whole range of trade-related issues.

Adding value has also been achieved by linking in situ and ex situ conservation, and by strengthening or improving seed-production systems through mechanisms such as seed fairs and seed banks. These elements are part of the INCA project in Cuba and the maize-improvement project in China. Also, a project in Costa Rica has attempted to broker options for the commercialization of tapado beans as certified organic produce, both in the country and abroad -- a good example of trying to add value from the demand side. There is definitely a need for a more systematic approach to look at, and deal with, not only organically certified produce but also a whole range of trade-related issues such as unfair trading practices and market linkages.

Much knowledge has been gained and many skills acquired through learning by doing, as well as through projects designed specifically with training in mind. The research has contributed significantly to strengthening individual and organizational research, documentation, and management skills. The list of leading PPB-minded organizations includes a wide range of research-oriented bodies, among them NGOs such as LI-BIRD and the Southeast Asia Regional Initiatives for Community Empowerment (SEARICE, an NGO that is a member of the CBDC program); NARS such as INCA in Cuba and GMRI in China; universities from Can Tho University in Viet Nam to the universities of Guelph and Ottawa in Canada; and international centres such as CIAT, CIMMYT, ICARDA, the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), and the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI).

Many of the projects carried out by these organizations represent truly pioneering endeavours -- and were often risky because the researchers dared to undertake institutionally novel and methodologically innovative research, rowing against the stream of conventional breeding practice. Success was not assured, and many of their colleagues were skeptical about the prospects of PPB. Two good examples of risk-taking that are paying off handsomely are the INCA project in Cuba and the maize-improvement project in China. Both involve NARS and both are carried out in countries where participatory approaches are simply unheard of. The work by ICARDA on barley in North Africa and the Middle East is another example of successful risk-taking.

The PRGA program and its members have made some important strides toward changing research policies within the CGIAR itself. An example of a crucial step forward is the recommendation made in 2000 by an advisory group to the CGIAR Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) that PPB become an integral part of each CGIAR centre's plant-breeding program. Another sign that the innovative work underway is getting recognition was shown when the ICARDA barley research team headed by Salvatore Ceccarelli won a prestigious CGIAR publication award in 2000. More profound changes, however, still proceed slowly.

Through efforts to collect and synthesize research issues, project approaches, and methodologies at the global level, the PRGA program has produced a number of important, comprehensive reports. These reports discuss the technical and institutional issues in PPB from the perspective of both formal plant breeding and farmer plant breeding. The insights contained in these reports capture the cumulative experiences of many teams and projects. In 1999 the program's Plant Breeding Working Group also produced detailed guidelines for developing PPB projects.

Other projects have produced extensive training materials for specific methodologies, such as CIAT's series for use by the CIALs in Latin America. Based on its global in situ program, IPGRI has produced a training guide for on-farm conservation of crop genetic diversity.

The project experiences make it clear that farmers can and should play a key role in the research process through PPB.

What works best, when and where? It is still early to determine the full and long-term impact on farmers' livelihoods and the viability of the numerous approaches that have been and are being supported. However, diversity is gaining terrain in many places. Yield results are improving in quantity, quality, or both. Capacities have been strengthened. It is also clear that there is no one-size-fits-all solution to agrobiodiversity conservation and crop improvement -- diversity in methodology is needed to mirror diversity in rural contexts.

The experiences make it equally clear that farmers can and should play a key role in the research process through PPB, and that new cultivation options can and should be introduced in a participatory manner. These findings can be singled out as positive results. On the negative side of the ledger, an important constraint identified by several projects has been policy related -- specifically, the lack of a supportive policy environment. There is generally a lack of policies that support change.

Seeking policy and legal alternatives

National and international support for local efforts

Government policies -- or the lack of them -- can and do have an enormous impact on efforts to conserve agrobiodiversity in all parts of the world. In many countries the issue is not even considered by government agricultural officials. In others it is often seen as a side issue, not one that is central to the long-term sustainability of the food supply.

Several attempts to better understand and perhaps modify these attitudes have been made by studying how current policies (or the absence of policies) influence agricultural biodiversity. As a result, policy and legislative alternatives in the form of incentives, regulations, or legislation have been proposed. For example, the PRGA program has conducted policy research around questions of recognition of farmers' contribution to agrobiodiversity conservation and crop improvement, as well as intellectual property rights.

It has proven difficult to link local-level users' perspectives and interests with macro-level policies, and to do so in an inclusive manner. For example, how do we ensure that all stakeholders have a say, or that there are better links between researchers and extension agents, or between researchers and policymakers? It is also clear that longer term studies are needed to monitor policy impact, such as an analysis of policy disincentives. Integration of analyses at different levels is complicated, and it is important that research on policy and legislation be integrated into research that focuses on cropping systems and knowledge enhancement.

There is not yet a very strong critical mass of researchers willing to get involved with policy-making and implementation debates and processes.

It is also essential that more researchers begin to take an active interest in the impact of policies and legislation on biodiversity in general and PPB in particular. Although they are growing in number and strength there is not yet a very strong critical mass of researchers involved -- or willing to get involved -- with policy-making and implementation debates and processes.

In Zimbabwe, there is a national project to develop specific legislation on IPR patents. This project has produced significant inputs for the national policy and legislation design and drafting processes. A similar project is underway in Viet Nam. The Zimbabwe project also has a regional impact as it is part of an effort by the Organization of African Unity (OAU) to draft model legislation for its member countries. Also at the regional level is a study of plant breeders' rights in Latin America.

At the global level the work of the Crucible Group on a series of issues dealing with rights, laws, and legislation has been innovative and enlightening. The Crucible Group is a global think-tank that brings together 45 individuals from 25 countries -- from industry, government, advocacy groups, and aboriginal groups. All serve in a private capacity and share a common interest in preserving and developing the world's genetic heritage. Their role is to critically discuss issues and formulate policy recommendations related to the use, conservation, and ownership of plant genetic resources. Results of these discussions -- that encompassed both consensus and disagreements -- were first published in 1994 in the IDRC book People, plants, and patents: The impact of intellectual property on trade, plant biodiversity, and rural society. The book contains 28 recommendations.

Following a new series of discussions, insights and recommendations were updated and jointly published by IDRC, IPGRI, and the Dag Hammarskjöld Foundation in 2000 as Seeding solutions. Volume 1: Policy options for genetic resources. This volume included 15 new recommendations. Volume 2 of Seeding solutions was published in 2001 and outlines legislative options for national governments, for the conservation and exchange of germplasm, the protection of indigenous and local knowledge, and the continued promotion of biological innovations. More recently, IDRC and several other donors, in collaboration with IPGRI, created the Genetic Resources Policy Initiative (GRPI) to build on and expand the policy work of the Crucible Group.

Other studies undertaken as part of crop-related projects have dealt with issues related to international policy-making bodies such as the CBD and the World Trade Organization (WTO). These efforts have contributed to raising broader awareness, putting issues of importance on the agendas, and bringing the voices of indigenous peoples to the negotiating table.

Summing up

What has been achieved?

Awareness and understanding of the importance of agrobiodiversity have increased considerably during the last decade. There now exists a wealth of knowledge about local plant genetic resources and resource uses -- often in remote places that are hard to access. This knowledge covers the three cropping types, three continents, numerous agroecozones, and a variety of indigenous systems.

The cumulative research results constitute a sound body of research that has contributed to put agrobiodiversity on the international research agenda as a topic of broad interest -- including the agendas of donor organizations that fund international development or development research.

Specifically, a series of new, interdisciplinary methodologies is available to study agrobiodiversity and to strengthen local capacities to maintain and increase diversity. These methodologies combine consultative and collaborative participatory elements, on-farm and on-station experimentation, and, to varying degrees, a user-differentiated analysis based primarily on gender. Methodologies and tools have been documented and made accessible to those interested in studying or implementing agrobiodiversity dynamics.

In some countries and organizations, teams continue to pioneer these new methodologies. Wherever this happens, the projects are truly showcases, often drawing considerable attention and sometimes critical scrutiny as well. The institutionalization of methodologies and approaches has been put explicitly on the agenda of a few initiatives, most notably the PRGA program of the CGIAR. Some innovators have already succeeded in integrating such methodologies into their national research agenda: for example, CIMMYT in Mexico or ICARDA in Morocco and Tunisia. Several other project teams -- including those in China, Cuba, Ethiopia, Jordan, and Nepal -- aim to influence national research agendas in the near future. The Crucible Group, through its insightful publications, has been instrumental in getting agrobiodiversity issues (such as indigenous knowledge, farmers' rights, and access and benefit sharing) onto national and international policy agendas. Alternative regulations, agreements, and model laws have been formulated, proposed, and advocated. However, as this review clearly indicates, much work remains to be done to strengthen and expand the field of agrobiodiversity conservation, crop improvement, and PPB.

Proof of progress

In late 2002, the PRGA in collaboration with another CGIAR initiative, the Systemwide Genetic Resources Programme (SGRP), organized a workshop entitled "The quality of science in participatory plant breeding." The workshop brought together 35 PPB research and research-management innovators from the around the world -- representing the CGIAR, NARS, NGOs, and donor organizations. Their goal was to take stock of and debate future concepts and methodologies applicable to PPB. The topics they debated included priority setting, on-farm testing and evaluation, scaling up, measuring impact, putting PPB in a more holistic context, and PPB and biotechnology.

These partnerships are not only changing research practices, they are also laying the groundwork for future innovation and longer term results.

The 5-day workshop was clear proof that impressive progress has been made in the PPB field. Concepts and methodology have deepened and matured; the number of practitioners and organizations supporting PPB work has increased and expanded; a start has been made to link PPB work more closely with integrated natural resource management, with seeds systems, and with access, recognition, and benefits issues.

The workshop strengthened existing partnerships and forged a number of new ones -- a feature that sometimes goes unnoticed in assessing the value of such events. These partnerships are not only changing research practices, they are also laying the groundwork for future innovation and longer term results toward more user-responsive research.

Document(s) 5 of 9