Background
Report in Support of ESDI Cluster Groups-CG6 Water Resources
Introduction
and Contents
This report summarizes Canadian indicator
work and data sources for the Water Resources Cluster Group (WRCG)
and covers information on water resources and freshwater fisheries.
It is based on a survey of indicator and data sources that may
assist in developing a set of water indicators under the Environment
and Sustainable Development Indicators (ESDI) Initiative being
carried out by the National Round Table on the Environment and
the Economy (NRTEE). The survey broadly identifies the scope of
indicators and data available, then focuses in on indicators and
data that may be of interest to the WRCG.
The Context and Mandate section
discusses natural capital within the context of the overall ESDI
Initiative. It summarizes the context and mandate of the WRCG
and examines capital within the context of that group.
The Summary of Research on Water
Resources section provides an overview of the background research
as well as details on provincial ambient water quality programs.
The Summary of Research on Freshwater
Fisheries section provides an overview of information gleaned
from research.
The Concluding Remarks section
provides additional observations.
Appendix A and Appendix B
include records from a dataset constructed for this background
report. Appendix A describes the data and indicators that are
linked to a time series, while Appendix B is a summary of the
relevant background research. These studies may contain data,
but only sets that are collected on a one-time or intermittent
basis.
Appendix C is devoted to freshwater
fisheries indicators and datasets.
Context
and Mandate
The NRTEE's ESDI Initiative has selected
a "capital" model or framework for developing indicators
in which traditional measures of produced and human capital are
complemented by measures of natural capital. This capital framework,
detailed in A
Proposed Approach to Environment and Sustainable Development Indicators
Based on Capital, recognizes that the well-being of the
economy and society is linked to a capital base that includes
produced, human and natural capital. Based on this notion, indicators
are required to assess possible changes in capital stocks and
flows or services from the capital. Changes over time in capital
stocks can then be identified and used to assess possible changes
in societal well-being.
The NRTEE's ESDI Initiative recognizes
that measures and indicators are available to assess produced
and human capital but are absent for assessing changes in natural
capital. The overall goal of the ESDI Initiative is to develop
high-level national indicators that are representative of some,
if not all, of the following aspects of natural capital:
-
ecosystem services, defined
as those services provided by the environment that are essential
to the economy's long-term sustainability. Also, as an indicator
of the demand for ecosystem services, pollutant inputs
should be examined where relevant (particularly for the cluster
groups on land and soils, air quality and atmospheric conditions,
and water resources);
-
ecosystem health (e.g.,
biodiversity), which relates to the health of ecosystem services;
-
quality of natural resource
stocks (particularly with regard to renewable resources);
and
-
total quantity and commercial
(economic) value of stocks of renewable and non-renewable
natural resources.
The mandate provided to the WRCG could
cover all four aspects of natural capital. Specifically, the group
is asked to:
-
determine a national indicator
of water quality for human health;
-
determine indicators of freshwater
ecosystem health, possibly including indicators related to biological
diversity or water diversion;
-
develop a stock estimate for surface
and groundwater and determine what information will be needed
to determine whether the stock is being maintained/used in a
sustainable fashion;
-
examine the feasibility of determining
stock and habitat indicators of commercially and/or recreationally
exploited freshwater species;
-
examine the feasibility of population-weighted
indicators for water quantity and quality, related to demand
for and availability of water. These could be based on how much
water is needed to sustain current and future human activity
and the health of aquatic ecosystems. The group will also consider
the spatial and population aspects of water demand and availability;
and
-
determine indicators of inputs
of pollutants (e.g., priority toxic substances) in terms of
the demand created for ecosystem services (waste disposal and
assimilation).
The group is also asked to identify potential
links between the indicators it develops, particularly for water
quality as it affects human health, and those under consideration
by the cluster group on human capital.
In addition, the group is asked to recommend
no more than three indicators and to designate one preferred indicator
for each sub-domain of water quantity and water quality.
Linking
the Indicators and Data to the ESDI Mandate
Appendices A and B include the records
of a database assembled to identify relevant studies and data sources
for the WRCG. Detailed information is provided based on 61 studies
and data sources that were identified as being relevant to the WRCG
mandate.
The records are sorted into five categories
that are linked to the ESDI categories of capital. They include:
- Indicators of ecosystem services and functions;
- Ecosystem health;
- Stock-type estimates;
- Commercial/economic value; and
- Human capital.
The studies outlined in Appendices A
and B are sorted into at least one of the above categories, and
some are cross-referenced to two or more categories. Detailed descriptions
of the categories are listed below.
Category
1: Indicators of Ecosystem Services and Functions
Ecosystem services provided by freshwater
bodies include oxygen production, water purification, removal of
greenhouse gases, climate stabilization, conversion of solar energy
to carbohydrates and proteins, etc. The studies, data and indicators
in this category monitor the presence of chemicals or pollutants,
such as metals and industrial chemicals, and other changes in the
properties of water (e.g., dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature, conductivity,
alkalinity). Some studies also monitor the changing composition
of sediment in rivers, lakes and streams to assess the progress
of remediation efforts or to track the effects of industry on the
water resource.
Category
2: Ecosystem Health
Ecosystem health is defined as the "the
properties exhibited by an environment that maintains its biodiversity,
is stable over time and is resilient to change." The ecosystem
health category includes a number of studies that rely on shorter-term
data with a focus on assessing comparative ecosystem health, usually
using biomarkers or bio-indicators (i.e., organisms such as fish
and macroinvertebrates). These indicators are used to assess the
relative health of water-based ecosystems, such as rivers, lakes
and streams. Included in this category are estimates of the release
of substances into water.
Category
3: Stock-type Estimates
This category encompasses studies that
estimate the physical stock of freshwater in Canada, or take a mass
balance approach using flow or meteorological data. Many studies
link stock-type estimates to human health or commercial/economic
value studies and thus are really a combination of categories.
Category
4: Commercial/Economic Value
This category includes studies and indicators
that highlight the commercial value of water or water resources,
as well as those studies that elaborate on the economic value of
water or of goods and services related to water resources. This
category also includes estimates of water-related expenditures for
pollution control equipment and irrigation. Many studies in this
category illustrate value at the community or household level and
show how value is impacted by changes in water quality.
As mentioned above, there are studies
that combine "value" with other categories such as stock
estimates or ecosystem health. This category generally links water
resources to the economic or household sectors.
Category
5: Human Capital (health impacts and drinking water quality)
This category encompasses studies, indicators
and data that link human health directly to water resources and
water quality. Studies in this category often consider the public
health implications of water quality indicators relative to water
quality guidelines or other benchmarks. Aspects of quality measured
often include the presence of toxic pollutants, coliform bacteria
and other features such as turbidity.
Organization
of Records in the Database
The records in Appendices A and B include
the following fields:
- ID. The reference number in the database;
- Title. The title of the study, data or indicator;
- Year. The study, data or indicator year;
- Responsible Organization and Contact. Who
assembled or houses the data or information;
- URL. Where to find the reference;
- Link to Mandate. Where the indicator or
data falls/fall within the five broad categories identified above
(e.g., indicators of ecosystem services and functions);
- Time Series and Frequency of Update. Indicates
whether the indicator or data is/are collected and reported yearly
or intermittently, or is/are based on samples or short-term monitoring;
- Geographic Scope and Potential Applicability
to the National Level. Indicates whether the information is
local, provincial or national;
- Summary Description. Gives an overview of
the indicator or dataset;
- Calculation Method. Indicates whether the
indicator was determined using a chemical, biological or survey
approach; and
- Comments. Additional comments that
are of relevance.
Summary
of Research on Water Resources
Sixty-one studies and data sources were
assembled into a database and then sorted based on a number of criteria
pertaining to the WRCG. Table 1 provides a quantitative overview
of sorted information from the database. The table indicates the
coverage of studies and data with respect to the mandate of the
cluster group, geographic coverage and frequency of data collection.
* Four studies
are not included under "Geographic Coverage." These studies
are sub-provincial in coverage and are focused at the watershed
or municipal levels.
** Twenty-two studies
are not included under "Frequency of Collection." Most
of the omitted studies did not use or report data.
As can be seen, indicators of ecosystem
services and functions are the most pervasive, have both national
and provincial coverage, and are based on information collected
on a frequent basis. Indicators and data on commercial/economic
value are also strongly represented in Table 1. Conversely, it is
rare to find stock-type indicators that have a broad geographic
coverage or are based on frequently collected information.
The datasets were then sorted by frequency
of data collection, defined as the presence of time series data
that are still being collected. This criterion identifies the scope
of data sources from which frequently updated water indicators could
be established in the short term, an important guideline of the
ESDI Initiative. In all, the 26 records in Appendix A meet this
criterion. Table 2 presents a detailed overview of the records in
Appendix A. Appendix B contains the remaining records.
* Two studies are
omitted from this category as they do not use or report data.
Table 2 highlights that ecosystem services and functions indicators
are the most widely available. The next most widely available indicators
with regular data collection are commercial/economic value indicators.
It is interesting to note that commercial/economic value indicators
are all national in scope with yearly data collection. This outcome
is primarily due to the work of Statistics Canada, which collects
a wide range of data that meet the needs and criteria of the ESDI
Initiative (Records/IDs 27, 80 to 86 in Appendix A).
Overview
of Indicators and Data by Indicator Type
Category 1: Indicators of Ecosystem
Services and Functions. Most of the studies in this category
are concerned with in situ water quality and are not specific to
drinking water in Canadian municipalities. Generally speaking, the
indicators and data provided in this category are based on limited
sampling or monitoring, with few occurrences of time series data
with wide geographical coverage.
That said, provincial ambient water quality
programs provide a wealth of reliable in situ water quality data.
Most of these programs have long-term monitoring networks in place
with frequent reporting on water quality trends. The provincial
programs are discussed in more detail below.
Category 2: Ecosystem Health.
Ecosystem health studies and indicators are abundant, but they lack
wide geographic or temporal scope, and are usually based on data
obtained from sampling. The exception is the National Pollutant
Release Inventory, which provides yearly updates on the release
of toxic substances into receiving waters by major industrial emitters
(Record/ID 75 in Appendix A).
Category 3: Stock-type Estimates.
Stock-type studies, indicators and data are the least prevalent
of the five categories. Statistics Canada is developing a mass balance
approach, called the Canadian Water Stock Account, to estimate the
stock and flow of surface water in Canada (Record/ID 80 in Appendix
A).
Category 4: Commercial/Economic Value.
This category tends to include data collected by Statistics Canada,
or intermittently by Environment Canada. The information presented
in Appendix A therefore tends to have a national focus and is collected
somewhat routinely. For example, the Municipal Water Use Database
provides national and provincial coverage on a wide range of variables
(Record/ID 28 in Appendix A).
Category 5: Human Capital (health
impacts and drinking water quality). The data and indicators
in this category tend to be linked to municipal water supply systems.
There appears to be good national coverage of this type of information,
but there is no central repository where routinely collected information
is housed. A national picture of water quality, collected by municipalities
and other water supply organizations, is therefore not available.
Relevant Datasets
Based on a review of the datasets in
Appendix A and Table 2, there are surprisingly few data sources
that have national coverage with frequently collected data. That
said, data sources relevant to the WRCG mandate include:
- HYDAT/Water Survey of Canada, which is the Environment
Canada dataset on stream flow volumes (ID 79);
- Statistics Canada National Accounts information
on water industries and use (various IDs). Statistics Canada Census
and population forecasting datasets may also be relevant to the
mandate but are not discussed in this document. Instead, it is
assumed that high-quality population data are available from Statistics
Canada and these data are sufficient to meet WRCG needs; and
- Environment Canada's MUD and Industrial Water Use
Databases (ID 45 and 77).
It is also important to note that most
provinces and municipalities monitor water quality on a regular
basis, but there is no national dataset that aggregates this information.
Data
and Indicators from Provincial Ambient Water Quality Monitoring
This section complements and summarizes
the records presented in Appendix A by providing a snapshot of provincial
programs that monitor ambient water quality. A review of the programs
highlights four key points:
- Provincial data that are collected from the ambient
networks are often linked to standards established in regulations
or guidelines. In most cases, the desire to assess water quality
against drinking water or environmental standards determines what
data are collected. The fact that most jurisdictions have adopted
the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) Canadian
Water Quality Guidelines means that common parameters sampled
on a regular basis are likely available nationally. The same can
be said for drinking water sampling, where Health Canada's Canadian
Drinking Water Standards influence data collection.
- Ambient water quality monitoring programs are ongoing
in most provinces and territories. These programs generate time
series data on a yearly basis for a number of sampling parameters.
Parameters broadly include flow, organic, inorganic and microbiological
measures. Time series data are generally available in most jurisdictions
for both surface water and drinking water quality. The challenge
of collecting and aggregating numerous datasets poses a challenge
to assembling national level indicators.
- Most provinces exclusively collect surface water
quality data, but a few provinces (such as Prince Edward Island,
British Columbia and Newfoundland) routinely collect groundwater
data.
- Newfoundland and Manitoba are using a water quality
index first developed by British Columbia. This system ranks water
quality variables against water quality guidelines and categorizes
the trend as improving, deteriorating or remaining the same. Opportunities
may therefore exist to review and expand this index nationally.
Details on provincial programs are provided
below.
British Columbia. Data are collected
from 133 monitoring stations in 68 waterbodies, including 49 river
sections or creeks, 14 lakes or reservoirs and five groundwater
aquifers. A wide range of data on copper, zinc, fecal coliforms,
sulphate and other major ions, and nitrate levels are used to assess
water quality trends in these bodies of water.
A trend report was completed in 2000
based on data collected regularly and consistently over periods
of 5 to 10 years or more. These data were evaluated to determine
whether water quality is improving, deteriorating or remaining about
the same. Water quality objectives or guidelines are used to assess
the environmental significance of the trends and to develop a water
quality index.
Although the B.C. government has not
formally approved the CCME guidelines, the guidelines are being
incorporated into ongoing water quality monitoring and reporting.
Alberta. Ambient water quality
is assessed at over 300 sites throughout Alberta, with 20 long-term
river network stations. These sites, some of which have been active
for almost 30 years, are sampled on a monthly basis and tested for
an extensive list of water quality variables. The Alberta Surface
Water Quality Index is based on data from 12 of these stations,
representing the province's six major river systems. The index is
generated by comparing the results of tests for 20 substances with
the Alberta Ambient Surface Water Quality Guidelines, which were
developed in part based on CCME guidelines.
Saskatchewan. Saskatchewan collects
data from 15 regularly monitored stations that test for 70 pollutants.
Sites are monitored on a monthly basis for nutrients, salts and
bacteria, on a quarterly basis for metals and three times per year
for certain pesticides. Saskatchewan continues to monitor for long-term
trends.
Manitoba. Manitoba uses, with
minor modifications, the water quality index developed by British
Columbia; as applied by Manitoba, this index considers 25 variables.
Manitoba monitors up to 70 water quality variables at 35 sites located
on 28 rivers and lakes.
Manitoba is working to incorporate the
CCME guidelines into its surface water quality objectives.
Ontario: Ontario has 200 stations
to monitor the water quality of streams and rivers. Sampling is
carried out eight times a year, and the water is analyzed for major
ions, including nitrate. Pesticide analysis is not done routinely.
Ontario also measures from 10 to 200 variables of water quality
at thousands of sites. Four databases contain raw data: Great Lakes,
Inland Rivers and Streams, Inland Lakes and Drinking Water Surveillance.
The raw data, however, have not been compiled in a form that can
be analyzed to determine general trends in water quality.
Ontario has its own Ontario Drinking
Water Standards aimed at source protection.
Quebec. The Ministry of the Environment
and Wildlife operates 386 monitoring stations located in 40 watersheds
to measure nitrogen, phosphorus, fecal coliforms, pH, turbidity
and suspended solids. Data are collected on a monthly basis.1
New Brunswick. The province examines
32 variables in various lakes and rivers throughout the province.
Data are collected from baseline stations providing data over the
long term, other stations providing background information for specific
projects in the short term, and downstream stations measuring the
effects of point and non-point sources of pollutants.
Prince Edward Island. Currently, 26 sampling sites are located
in five watersheds and include groundwater, fresh surface water
and estuarine water. Samples are collected at regular intervals
on a year-round basis. Data are available from the current network,
but other historical samples are contained in the Environment Canada
Envirodat database. In some cases, a wide variety of parameters
are analyzed for the samples in the dataset. The main parameters
generally include major ions, metals, nutrients, pesticides and
fecal bacteria when available. There are also time series data on
wells sampled for agricultural impacts from pesticide use.
Prince Edward Island collects surface
water quality data that can be assessed against the CCME water quality
guidelines.
Nova Scotia. The province does
not perform ambient monitoring but uses short-term projects to monitor
and improve the water in problem areas.
Newfoundland. The province monitors
up to 35 water quality variables at approximately 56 sites. The
goals of the monitoring program include collecting data on background
and ambient water quality of major rivers and basins, detecting
and measuring trends in water quality, and assessing freshwater
aquatic health and the suitability of water for various beneficial
uses. Newfoundland maintains its own water quality database, which
is updated every two to three years. A water quality assessment,
based on the water quality index developed by British Columbia,
has been investigated for development.
The Department of Environment in partnership
with municipal governments monitors source and tap water quality
of public water supplies on a regular basis. The data are used to
provide assurance that drinking water sources and tap water adhere
to Health Canada's Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water.
Yukon. The Department of Indian
Affairs and Northern Development (DIAND) and Environment Canada
jointly operated 19 monitoring stations in 1996. Baseline monitoring
of rivers and streams was ended in September 1996. Raw data are
still collected but have not been correlated into readable information
due to budgetary constraints.
Northwest Territories. DIAND and
the Territory's Department of Environment maintain 50 active stations
that monitor water quality. The federal government has collected
data on 30 to 60 variables from about 100 stations reporting on
80 bodies of water in the Northwest Territories.
Summary
of Research on Freshwater Fisheries
At the request of the NRTEE ESDI secretariat,
this topic was added to the report on September 20, 2001. This section
provides a general overview of available freshwater fisheries indicators
and data. It loosely follows the format used in the water research
section above. Records of interest are presented in Appendix C.
Overview
of Indicators and Data by Indicator Type
Category 1: Indicators of Ecosystem
Services and Functions. Surface water quality guidelines are
generally established to take account of impacts on freshwater fisheries
and human health. Such guidelines entail measures of contaminants,
such as phosphorus, and ambient water quality, such as the level
of dissolved oxygen in surface water. These measures can be used
as measures of the health and viability of the habitat available
for freshwater fish. As discussed in the water section above, surface
water quality data are available in most provincial jurisdictions
and are collected on a routine basis.
Category 2: Ecosystem Health.
Some studies identify fish bio-indicators or sentinel stocks to
assess ecosystem health. But as with Category 2 discussed in the
water section above, national time series data with frequent updates
are not readily available.
One indicator under development by Environment
Canada's State of the Environment Reporting will track trends in
mercury levels in wildlife tissues. Most provincial jurisdictions
are testing for mercury in fish and have sampling programs in place
that could provide time series data with national coverage. Mercury
sampling is also linked to Category 5, human capital (below).
Category 3: Stock-type Estimates.
Stock assessments and estimates of fish populations are not readily
available nationally. Instead, stock assessments tend to be based
on a recreational or commercial species, within in a specific geographic
area, and often on a watershed basis. An indicator linked to fish
populations would therefore be constrained by a lack of data with
national coverage.
Fish counting at long-term counting stations
is conducted in a number of jurisdictions to assess stock size and
health. For example, returning salmon counts on river systems are
published by Prince Edward Island and British Columbia on a yearly
basis. However, the fish counting data are limited to a few targeted
species such as salmon and trout.
An indicator using stock estimates or
fish counts will not have national representation but can cover
groups of important species and fisheries.
Stock-type indicators can also include
measures of the stock of fish habitat, where the habitat stock includes
the quality and area of freshwater fisheries habitat. Habitat quality
indicators include indirect measures of stock such as impediments
to freshwater fisheries productivity, including the number of dams
or impoundments in watersheds. Area of habitat indicators include
direct measures of habitat such as numbers of recreational trout
streams.
Based on the literature search, there
is a dearth of habitat stock indicators with national data that
are frequently collected. At best, an indicator for this category
will not have national representation but can cover groups of important
species and fisheries.
Category 4: Commercial/Economic Value. Excellent yearly time
series data are available on the value and landings of commercial
freshwater fish. The federal Department of Fisheries and Oceans
collects and publishes this information. Statistics Canada publishes
data on yearly exports and imports of freshwater fish. Some provinces,
for example, Manitoba and Ontario, have yearly landings figures
and other economic-type data on commercial freshwater fisheries.
Recreational economic value and expenditure
information is available from the Nature Survey, conducted by Environment
Canada and Statistics Canada, and the Survey of Recreational Fisheries,
conducted by the Department of Fisheries and Oceans. Both of these
national surveys are conducted every five years, with data available
for 1996 from the Nature Survey and 1995 from the Survey of Recreational
Fisheries.
Yearly licensing information is available
from the provinces, but no explicit link to commercial/economic
values can be made from these data. Licence-holder surveys also
produce information on effort and catches. Catch per unit of effort
is a good indicator of stock size and fishing pressure.
Category 5: Human Capital (health
impacts and fish consumption). Of the freshwater fisheries indicators
that link freshwater fisheries to human capital, fish consumption
advisories are likely the most promising for the ESDI Initiative.
Most jurisdictions release consumption advisories, and the SOLEC
(State of the Lakes Ecosystem Conferences) initiative uses fish
consumption advisories as an indicator under the Great Lakes Water
Quality Agreement to assess the outcome or goal of "fish edibility."
Most provinces collect data on the level
of mercury in fish and publish information relating mercury levels
to human health thresholds.
Concluding
Remarks
It has been observed that Canada's diverse
water monitoring programs are rarely linked and do not provide a
cohesive national picture. They do not provide adequate trend assessment
information (i.e., improving, stable or deteriorating water quality)
or early detection of threats (chemical or biological stressors).
Because there is no national network for water quality monitoring,
the federal government is unable to report on the state of water
quality in Canada and unable to inform Canadians about whether their
water is clean.
That said, the background research indicates
that there is a diverse body of literature that can be linked to
water indicators. Many studies are concerned solely with the quality
of drinking water, the quantity of clean, potable water supplies,
the value of clean water supplies for human use or for human health.
Other studies are concerned with measuring the effects of human
activities on water and ecosystem quality, as shown in indicator
species, species diversity, or chemical and biological composition
of water resources.
For freshwater, the studies on water
quality are generally rooted in drinking water guidelines, such
as those published by the CCME. Other research is either highly
localized or short term (three to five years), thus presenting a
challenge for long-term, widely applicable indicators. Stock estimates
related to freshwater in Canada (other than studies done by federal
government departments) are the least abundant.
Moreover, the data are being collected
sporadically, as evidenced by recent studies of water quality and
aquatic ecosystem health. Existing monitoring of ambient and drinking
water quality may provide the long-term datasets needed in constructing
indicators for general water quality.
For freshwater fisheries, the story is
much the same. To achieve national coverage, indicators will either
have to be based on surface water quality monitoring data or commercial
fisheries landings information.
If the constraint to develop an indicator
with national coverage is relaxed, indicators based on significant
but geographically limited freshwater fish populations could be
assembled.
Important Note
Appendices A, B and C are not
available on the NRTEE's ESDI Web site. If you are interested in
receiving a copy of these appendices, please contact:
National Round Table on the Environment
and the Economy
Tel: (613) 992-7189
e-mail: admin@nrtee-trnee.ca
Appendix A and Appendix B
include records from a dataset constructed for this background report
[data and indicators linked to a time series (Appendix A) and a
summary of relevant background research (Appendix B)]. Appendix
C is devoted to freshwater fisheries indicators and datasets.
The appendices are available in English
only.
1
Some of the overview is based on a survey completed by the Fraser
Institute in Environmental Indicators, 4th Edition (2000).
Cluster Groups Background Documents
|
